Sport

The sudden explosion of interest in sports in Korea has been closely linked to the economic boom in industry, beginning about the middle of the century. The impressive staging of the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, stands witness to this fact. In the past few years there has been a tremendous emphasis on the advancement of sports policies and rules, along with the construction of many new sport facilities. As a result, sports are now an almost daily event for many residents, and spectator sports are becoming increasingly more popular. Koreas athletic history shows an impressive record of achievement in many international events n recent years.

The most dramatic achievements can be seen in the sports of soccer(football), wrestling, boxing, and Judo. A Korean runner, Shon Kee-chung, won the gold medal for a marathon in the 1936 Olympics, but won the medal under the Japanese flag, due to the fact that Korea belonged to Japan at the time. Korea flew its own flag for the first time in the Olympics at the 1948 London games. Since then, Korean athletes have demonstrated their performances in many events, both at home an abroad. They won one gold, one silver and four bronze medals at the 1976 Olympics in

Montreal to rank 19th out of over 100. In the 1982 Asian Games, Korea ranked third to The peoples Republic of China and Japan. In the 1986 Asia Games, Korea came in second, trailing China by only one gold medal. At the 1984 Los Angeles Olympiad, Korean athletes made their best record so far, ranking tenth in the final medal tally with 6 gold, 6 silver, and 7 bronze. This record was broken in the 1988 Seoul Games. Korean athletes also made a remarkable display in the 25th Olympic Games at Barcelona in 1992. Korea placed 7th out of 172 countries, with 12 gold, five silver, and 12 bronze medals.

These Olympic games were special for another reason also; Korean athletes won the first and last gold medals of the Games. Yo Kap-sun won the first gold medal in the womens 10 meter air rifle competition. Hwang Young-cho won the last gold medal in a marathon, his victory hoisted the Korean flag atop the flagpole of the main stadium just before the closing ceremony at the Barcelona Olympiad. Korea has played host to many other international sporting events over recent years. 1978, the 42nd World Shooting Championships brought over 1300 entries from 71 countries.

The Championships, he first ever in Asia, were held at one of the worlds five finest shooting ranges, the Taeunung International Shooting Range, only 45 minutes from downtown Seoul. The Eighth World Basketball Championships for Women was held in 1979 at the as the first event in the new Seoul Sports Complex in Chamshil; it too, was the first of that kind of event held in Asia. Also, the second Asian Swimming Championships and the Eighth Asian Junior Basketball Championships were held in Korea in 1984. The Asian Games Federation, at a meeting in New Delhi in 1981, selected Seoul to host the 986 Asian Games.

In both official and non-official circles, it was known that hosting the Asian Games in Korea would demonstrate the countrys steady development in all areas along with its potential for becoming an active player on the world stage. The Asian Games served as an important dress-rehearsal for the Seoul Olympics that were to follow in two years. While the Asian Games were a significant event themselves, broader aspects resulted in more than just the efforts of the organizing committee and the sports officials. The government and the people oined in with great effort to make the Asian Games a great success.

Construction was forced to breakneck speeds for new sports facilities that were to provide both athletes and spectators with comfort along with the most sophisticated electronic and technical equipment, which would be used in both the regional meet and again later in the Olympics. As another part of all the developments in the sports movement in Korea, collage students have also been active at their own levels of competition. They have taken part in the Universiad since 1967, making impressive showings of their discipline and determination.

Athletes today will do almost anything to get an edge. One of the primary things an athlete will do is put supplements into their body. These supplements range from protein shakes to illegal anabolic steroids. Some sports supplements are incredibly safe and effective, yet others work for a while and then fizzle out, while others still work well but do more damage than good in the long run. In the past athletes had to turn to such things as anabolic steroids or blood doping (the process of taking out blood and adding oxygen to it and putting it back into your body in order to increase a persons endurance).

However, these procedures have many drawbacks. Mainly, they are illegal. An athlete may be suspended from playing their perspective sport for using them. They have many long terms and short term side effects. Many supplements are as simple as packaged energy and others require a strict exercise and eating regimen. I will explore sports supplements focusing on creatine and it’s effect on the sport world. The first and most basic sports supplements are protein weight gainers. This normally comes in the form of powder and works best when mixed with milk.

The main reason for taking extra protein is to gain weight and muscle mass. In today’s athletics, whether it is high school, college, or professional, the athletes are getting bigger and stronger. Protein works the best when the athlete is on a strict work out regimen. Many sports supplements are a combination of herbs and proteins. A popular supplement of this sort is called “Heat. ” Heat has many different ingredients in it that allow the athlete to experience more energy by creating more heat. This allows the athletes’ body to work more efficiently and therefore work faster, stronger, and longer.

This is very important in the sports world because it is becoming harder and harder to compete at an unsupplemented level. Athletes want every advantage that he or she can receive. Now there is a substance that can give an athlete the edge that they desire. One of the most popular and effective sports supplements on the market today is Pure creatine Monohydrate. Creatine was first introduced to the US in 1993 by a supplement company called Experimental and Applied Sciences. Since that time it has become one of the most demanded items on the market.

The creatine that is bought in stores duplicates the natural creatine that is produced by the kidney, liver, and pancreas. Creatine Monohydrate has been proven to significantly enhance athletic performance in the areas of power, strength, and muscle mass. Most importantly though, it doesn’t seem to have any serious side effects. Also, since Creatine is found naturally in the body and in foods, it is likely that it will not be removed from sports. What is Creatine? Creatine is a nutrient that is found in many foods. It is most highly concentrated in lean red meat. A half-pound of red meat contains about two grams of Creatine.

Every human body also produces Creatine in very small amounts, though some people produce more than others. Creatine is necessary for proper cell functions and cell reproduction, it is also a primary storage for energy in muscles. How does Creatine work? When somebody is exercising, his or her muscles demand energy. The energy that the muscle gets is called adenosine triphosphate (ATP). As the muscles keep contracting, the ATP is turned into adenosine diphosphate (ADP). ADP causes your muscles to fatigue. Creatine Phosphate helps to convert ADP into ATP when the ATP is gone.

In doing this, the athlete has better endurance during his of her workout or event. Creatine producers and users claim it to have many advantages, such as increased endurance, increased overall work potential, increased speed of muscular action, and the potential to further increase muscle mass. Creatine also accelerates protein synthesis. If all this were true, it would be easy to see why athletes are turning to Creatine for an edge on their competition. But are these claims real? Is their scientific proof of what Creatine does? Yes, since Creatine came onto the supplement market it has been tested extensively.

Research in human sports science indicates that if you supplement a normal diet with Creatine it will increase the Creatine content in the muscles. The Texas A&M football program, experimented by putting only a few of their players on Creatine in 1994, and as a result by 1995 they put their whole team on Creatine. The facts don’t lie Creatine has definite advantages. Since studies on Creatine loading have only been going on for less than a decade, it is still unknown what long-term effects will have. Several small short- term side effects include dehydration, diarrhea, and muscle cramping.

Also, Creatine might not be able to help a person in their sport. For example, Creatine does not always benefit an athlete who participates in an aerobic sport such as swimming, and long distance running. From a long distance runner’s point of view, Creatine would be bad to take. Creatine causes an athlete to retain water, causing them to gain weight. The Athletes that will receive the most benefit from creatine are athletes in power and performance sports such as football and wrestling. Though even with wrestling creatine can be dangerous because of the weight gaining factor, so more effective use my be during the off-season.

For such sports as football, Creatine can be very useful in gaining strength and size, while maintaining or increasing speed and endurance. Bodybuilders can also use Creatine as a legal and effective way to enhance muscle growth. Creatine use can best summed up pretty easy, a person can take all the Creatine they want, but if the proper biological, physiological, and nutritional factors aren’t in place, it won’t be of even the slightest benefit. Creatine is a true athletes supplement. It allows an athlete to work out harder and more frequently. Plus, it helps an athlete to become bigger, faster and stronger.

In addition, Creatine delivers these benefits without causing any serious harm, if any. “The only proven side effect has been weight gain”(AFQ, pg. 44). What is the positive side of sports supplements such as Creatine? With the rise of popularity in sports supplements, sports are becoming more competitive. This creates new interest in sports and helps athletes get in better shape. Creatine almost works like magic and gives the athlete an extra boost when it is really needed, and the athlete is struggling. With sports becoming more and more global, natural athletes are dominating the playing field.

Sports supplements are out there to help those with less natural talent reach their full potential by helping them to become faster, stronger and to have more endurance. “As long as athletes are encouraged to accept the norms of the sport ethic without question or qualification, they will continue to voluntarily try anything or take anything to remain in sports”(Coakley, pg. 175). Sports Supplements have taken sports to a new level of competition helping more athletes succeed. Creatine though is not without its down sides. Many people criticize and worry that extensive use of this somewhat new supplement may be premature.

The side effects are very minimal so far and are restricted to cramping, nausea, and diarrhea. The cause of this, many scientists believe, is because the user doesn’t drink enough water while working out, and with creatine the athlete can dehydrate much quicker because water gets absorbed into the muscles faster. As of right now, it is perceived that creatine does more good than evil and is, therefore, worth the occasional stomach ache. Though many reports say that Creatine may cause a person to dehydrate, some disagree with this view.

Steven Plisk, director of sports conditioning at Yale U. Creatine doesn’t have a dehydrating effect on individual muscle cells. If anything, creatine adds water to the muscle-explaining some of the weight gain”(AfQ, pg. 44). Many still argue the credibility of negative comments toward creatine, but none argue its positive effects. Just shoving creatine into your body without proper exercise will result only in creation of fat and waste. Creatine is not going to make someone a better athlete, he or she has to go out and do it themselves. If anything creatine requires one to increase their workouts and effort, because the body’s tolerance to exhaustion is higher.

Another problem that people may see with creatine is the cost factor. A Creatine supply for a month will average close to forty-five dollars. With the cost of this and other supplements being so high, it seems that the higher class athletes would have an advantage, which causes many critics of creatine(or supplements in general) to deem it unfair. Their case is, athletes of one group should not be permitted to have an advantage over another due to something such as money. In conclusion, Creatine is and can be a very effective supplement for athletes, it doesn’t help everyone.

Depending on the person and the sport they are participating in creatine’s effects can be either positive or negative. Though long term research on the effects of creatine have not been confirmed, as of now the only side effects are diarrhea, nausea, and weight gain. These are outweighed by the increased success that one may have in their strength and performance in sports. Creatine has a positive effect on sports as well as its negative effect, therefore each person should weigh the positive and negative, then make the decision for themselves.

This essay will be an attempt to bring together the ideas from our class readings about the Marxist sociological perspective as well as insight from other readings to further my understanding of Marxism and its applications to sport. I will lay the groundwork for the theory then proceed with how his theory is applied to accessibility issues in sport, distribution of power in sport and commercialization of sport. Basics of Marxist Theory The most widely used political and ideological system of thought is that of Karl Marx.

Marxism is a set of ideas trying to provide an explanation for human society. Although a little over a hundred years old his theories and thoughts have led to coups, revolutions and new waves theories and academics. As well, it is this systemic theory that has led many academics to look at the way they teach, discuss, write and even look at the way the world acts and thinks, even within their own small worlds. Within the world of sport the ideological views have no real place however it is possible to equate the views of Marx to the idea of sport.

Marxism is known as the interpretation of the thoughts of Karl Marx (1813 – 1883), a German social theorist and political revolutionary. Karl Marx wanted to understand the politics, culture and economics of the newly emerging nations within Europe. He emphasized the leading role of the economy in society as a whole as well as in societal parts, known as superstructures. These superstructures are non-economic aspects of society, i. e. culture, religion, social life, education, religion, politics and social institutions.

Marx identified society as consisting of two classes: The so-called Bourgeoisie and the so-called Proletariat. The Bourgeoisie is a capitalistic, wealthy and powerful minority consisting of aristocracy and upper class members meanwhile the Proletariat, also known as working-class, holds the majority of societal members who are poor, semi- or unskilled workers. The Bourgeoisie owns the entire means of production and wealth, therefore they are powerful and hegemonic. Their hegemony is maintained because only they have access to the financial and productive means.

Their ideologies, i. e. their thoughts and beliefs, are hegemonic and influencing as they have the power to establish them in society (Rigauer, 2000). In contrast, the Proletariat is alienated from and by the Bourgeoisie. The working- class has virtually no power and influence, financially and politically. The original sense of work has transformed from earning money to feed, socializing and pleasing one’s own interests into an exploiting tool of the Bourgeoisie to maintain the capitalist’s wealth and therefore power too.

Improving one’s own position within their social hierarchy in society is impossible for the Proletariat: there is no social mobility, meritocracy (a system of social stratification based on personal merit) and/or ladder-system, as the class being born into will already determine the position in the social hierarchy (Lecture Notes, 2005). The polarization between these two classes is obvious and conflict will occur as a result of inequalities.

The Marxist’s perspective is dominantly based on economic factors and over emphasizes them; money is assumed to be everything within society and social life. In my view, something is clearly missing here such as values and other social factors. Assuming that money is everything within society leads to assumptions that those owning the productive and therefore economic resources are given the power and use it to control those without to maintain their hegemony. Further factors that can form and shape society like gender, ethnicity, age, culture etc. are not taken into consideration and neglected.

Hence the Marxist perspective focuses on having versus not having, earning versus not earning and powerful versus powerless. Marxism and Sport Marxism tries to identify which sports are accessible to whom. A recent example: in contemporary British society class differences regarding participation rates in different sports can be found. The higher the social class, the more likely the individual is to be more active and to attend a sports event. The explanation therefore: a lack of resources in finances and availability of those in the working class.

Affected sports are walking, jogging, swimming, weight-lifting, snooker, and soccer. (Abercrombie et al, 2000). Even though not listed in that research, those sports traditionally considered to be upper class like polo, golf and equitation should be regarded too, as the equipment and availability for the working class is again limited due to lack of resources, especially financial resources. Furthermore a Marxist focuses on the distribution of power in sport: Who has got the power and why? Inequality can again be identified.

Sport is determined and shaped by the economic system in the hands of the powerful Bourgeoisie and does yet again promote the interest of those: increasing capital, maintaining power and privileges. Besides labor, sport is another tool of exploiting the working class as sport is just another form of controlling the society through a form of popular entertainment respectively giving access to certain sports only to certain, economically favored members. Concentration on ongoing commercialization in and of sport is another key issue within Marxism and sport.

Turning leisure into a marketing product is just another form of financial exploitation. Merchandising, ticket sales, turning clubs into a public limited companies and sponsorship are a further source of making profit. A Marxist would argue that the sport or event itself will not dominate. In fact, media coverage, print and TV media, will have influence, for example the organization of an event and the broadcasting times will have to coincide to make the most profit. The prices for broadcasting rights and player transfers have explosively increased and show again the influence of money in the sports world.

A very recent example of money and its impact on sport is The England and Wales Cricket Board’s decision to send its players to a World Cup match in Zimbabwe in 2003, regardless of political concerns due to the dictatorship of President Mugabe and the possible propaganda impact the match might have. (Guardian Online, 2003). Fearing a severe financial penalty in the forms of lost sponsorship and broadcasting money, the monetary aspect proved too powerful for them to decline a match of such importance; thus, politics do influence sport nowadays too.

A further example of commercialization of sport and changing the nature of a sport could be the critical look at horse-racing. Instead of enjoying the ride itself in the nature, horse-racing has become a competitive and very profitable industry for bookmakers as well as for established horse-racing television channels which have increasingly arisen. Making money out of horse-racing, the wealthy have established an upper class sport within the working class, as they are the majority to spend their money on, just to increase their capital yet again, a Marxist would argue.

Although the Marxists perspective is aware of inequalities resulting from money in sport, it fails to recognize that sport can have for individuals other possibilities such as creativeness and provision of challenging experiences. It can be said: Marxism “stresses the lack of fit between the different societal parts”, e. g. sport, and therefore focuses on conflict caused primarily by money (Haralambos and Holborn, 2000). There is contrasting theory, that of Functionalism, which focuses on a consensus view rather than a conflict view.

Sociologists who use functionalist theory assume that society is an organized system of corresponding parts held together by shared values and processes that create understanding among people. Functionalism in contrast to Marxism, “stresses the extent to which the different parts of society fit together harmoniously” (Haralambos and Holborn, 2000). I chose not to further my research into the Functionalist theory, however, an understanding and application of both theories may provide some solutions for the negative aspects of each perspective, this could then form the basis for a theory to best describe today’s society.

That is of course an ideal thought, but I am Canadian and I often think that the balance of sitting on the fence is the best alternative. In conclusion, after reading in depth articles and individual opinions on the topic, I realized that the Marxist approach is one dimensional and incomplete. Therefore, leaving me to be critical of an unfulfilling and one sided view of Marxist theory and sport. However, the commonalities that arise between capitalism and the development of sport in our society still cannot be ignored.

Thus, giving his theory partial credibility in my opinion. While I struggled to understand how this information could be used directly in the field of sport administration, in the end, I have learned that simply being aware of different sociological theories can help to understand why society behaves the way it does in the sport context. This application is very indirect; however, it will allow me to approach future situations with a deeper understanding of sports in society.

The entertaining sport of boxing, an athletic event consisting of numerous health conflictions, has been receiving some heat from legal and medical advocates, yet Some of the qualities that have open boxing to attack have, at the same time, been its salvation(Sammons 235). Boxing, which has been in existence and evolved from other forms of fighting longer than this country has been established, is a skill, talent, an ambition, and for most professional fighters, a love.

Professional boxing, like virtually any physical recreation, is performed so that there are health risks, yet it is the thletes right to decide their personal levels of danger. Indeed, boxing discloses Americas disposition towards tradition. During the United States brief history, Americans have consistently managed to acquire cultural, social, political, and intellectual institutions from England, leaving no surprise to why the modern controversial sport of boxing, or prizefighting, traveled over sea to America.

This high-demanding sporting event definitely must be one of the ultimate exceptions of our time. The 1820s and 1830s were marked by increased urbanization and ndustrialization, which stimulated a need for new and accessible diversions. The mood of society at large was captured in Beyond the Ring with this classic line, Men, women, and children who cannot live on gravity alone, need something to satisfy their lighter moods and hours(4).

Leisures and, more importantly, boxings opponents lost further ground as the giant cities attracted more and more immigrants who were unfamiliar to limitations upon As Jeffrey Sammons so concisely explains, It is because of, rather than despite, its contradictions that boxing has survived(236). While a umber of health and medical advocates have attempted to reform and/or abolish the sport since the early nineteen eighties because of brutality and death, these adversaries have also served as proof of manhood. The problem has slowly evolved from a national to an international conflict.

An increased death and brain damage rate triggered this worthless action towards the removal of professional boxing. This was just temporary. Slight changes within league rules, such as weight class regulations and softening of boxing gloves, soon decreased the already low health-damaging ates back to legal standards. Anybody who believes that there should be a complete elimination of the sport really needs to put things in perspective. In terms of numbers, I am almost one-hundred percent certain that the number of deaths caused in other sports is much higher.

Consider the high-intensity and extremely tragic catastrophes seen in motor sports alone. Not to mention air sports, mountain and rock climbing, and the handful of ball games. The intervention of our own personal risk and danger is our own liberty. On the other hand, I certainly agree we have to prevent people rom taking risks that they are ignorant about. There are numerous other areas where consenting adults take risks and harm each other, such as smoking or drinking alcohol. Where are the people arguing for their criminalization?

In much similarity to other illegal industries such as hardcore pornography and the never ending war on drug dealing and drug use, a ban on boxing would force it to go underground, making it more dangerous, much like the new hit blockbuster movie, Fight Club, a classic display of our true human instincts. Boxing is not so much a sport, not erely a game as it is, like drama itself, a way of life(Oates & Halpern, Besides, the demand for professional boxing in the Unites States is up there with the other sport elites.

The boxing industry is one of the highest revenue making sports that exists today. What would a ban do to the tourist industry for urban cities like Las Vegas or Atlantic City? Some of the greatest athletes this planet has seen in the twentieth century have come from the sport of boxing. Lets just think of Muhammad Ali, George Foreman, Joe Frazier and Sugar Ray Robinson. There can be ittle doubt that the desire for monetary gain, fame, and enhanced social status have motivated many a young man to enter the prizefightnig ring.

It has been a sterotype that all prizefighters have low socioeconomic backround and little education, or unuseful work skills. I believe that if I had the stereotypical low social status and the talent, skill, and ambition of a prizefighter, of course I would walk through the door that is shedding a dim yet only light of possible success. Despite the feasibility of fame and wealth, middle and upper class men dont mind professional baseball and ootball, but to be labeled a prizefighter is something they cant quite In opposition to my current beliefs, Elliot J. Gorn, the author of The Manly Art, believes that boxers are victims of racial and class discrimination, that the ring encourages voilence, and that pugilism appeals to all that is barbarous in man(11).

In Conclusion, a ban on boxing is not only illogical but impossible! In my mind, if you want to minimize the number of actual life-long injuries related to sports, you would be better off coming up with elaborated rules for motor sports or rock climbing.

“Sports is by far one of the fastest growing pass times in the United States” (Rainer 1987). Even if people don’t take it to the professional level, sporting events are happening in our backyards, and at all of our local schools around the country. With the growing popularity and the increasing competitiveness of the sports, it will take more than just a physical advantage to compete at the highest level. This is where the psychology of sports comes into play. In my research I will cover different areas in which you can psychologically strengthen you mental and physical skills to become a more skilled and competitive athlete.

Goal setting is a hugely powerful technique that can yield strong returns in all areas of you life. At its simplest level the process of setting goals and targets allows you to choose where you want to go in life. By knowing what you want to achieve, you know what you have to concentrate on and improve, and what is merely a distraction. Goal setting gives you long-term vision, and short-term motivation. By setting goals you can achieve more, improve performance, improve the quality of you training, increase your motivation to achieve, increase your pride and satisfaction in your performance, and improve your self-confidence (Bull, 1983).

Research (Bull, 1983) has shown that people who use goal-setting effectively suffer less from stress and anxiety, concentrate better, show more self-confidence, perform better, and are happier with their performance. The way in which you set your goals strongly affects their effectiveness. Before you start to set goals, you should have set the background of goal setting by understanding your commitment to sports, understanding the level you want to reach within the sport, knowing the skills that will have to be acquired and the levels of performance that will be needed, and know where this will fit into your overall life goals.

The following broad guidelines apply to setting effective goals. Positive statements, be precise, set priorities, write goals down to avoid confusion and give them more force, and keep operational goals small (Rainer, 1987). “Your body is a beautifully evolved sporting machine, comprising, among other things, muscles that can be trained to a peak of fitness and nerves that control the muscles” (Morris 1992). The nerves are massively linked in your brain: vast numbers of nerve cells are linked with a hugely greater number of interconnections. Many of the pathways, however, lie within the rain.

These pathways can be effectively trained by the use of mental techniques such as imagery and simulation. Imagery is the process by which you can create, modify or strengthen pathways important to the co-ordination of your muscles, by training purely within your mind. Imagery rests on the important principle that you can exercise these parts of you brain with imputes from our imagination rather than from your sences: the parts of the brain that you train with imagery experience imagined and real inputs similarly, with the real inputs being merely more vividly experienced (Rainer 1987).

Simulation is similar to imagery in that it seeks to improve the quality of training by teaching your brain to cope with circumstances that would not be otherwise met until an important competition was reached. Simulation, however, is carried out by making your physical training circumstances as similar as possible to the “real thing”-for example by bringing in crowds of spectators, by having performances judged, or by inviting press to a training session (Rainer 1987). Deciding your Commitment to your sport is possibly the most important “Sports Psychology” decision you will make.

It is important to realize that xcellence demands complete dedication: if you want to be the top athlete, then training to be the top athlete must be the most important thing in you life (Orlick 1994). Self-Confidence is arguably one of the most important things you can have. Self-confidence reflects your assessment of you own self-worth. It will play a large part in determining your happiness through life. Sports can be both enormously effective in improving self-worth, and highly destructive in damaging it (Orlick 1994). Imigery, positive thinking, and goal setting can dramatically help in ones own self-confidence.

You can help yourself to routinely apply sports psychology techniques by getting into the habit of using a Training and Performance Diary before and after every training session and performance. Take a diary that has a full page for every day. Block each page into sections for Entries before the Session: goals, and Entries after the Session: achievements, errors, quality of session, and mindset. Keeping this diary has the following advantages: it focuses your attention before a session on what you need to achieve. It helps you to track the achievement of goals.

It helps you to isolate areas needing improvement. It give you the raw data you need to track improvement over. It helps you to see and analyze how mood, distraction, and stress relate to performance (Orlick 1994). Part of Mental Preparation for competition is ensuring that you start your performance in a state of flow. Many high level athletes do this by developing routines that help them to focus their minds and block out distractions. These may involve complex and detailed rituals that involve preparation, detailed dressing rules, or precisely executed warm-ups.

You can perform best in competition if you remember the following pointers. Enjoy the performance. Execute, analyze, and improve skills in practice, and if you make a mistake during performance, forget about it and focus on executing (Morris 1992). One thing to watch out for as you get better at a sport is loss of Focus. This can happen for two main reasons. As your reaction becomes automatic, they hold your attention less. And the other reason is because as you get better, you may find that you are not as challenged by other competitors.

You may find that these focus problems have their root in goal setting: if you are setting outcome goals such as “coming first”, then this will not be challenging if you win easily (Orlick 1994). Bad Moods damage your motivation to succeed in training or competition. They make you more prone to negative thinking, and cause distraction, often as you trigger bad moods in other people. Bad moods emerge as bad temper, unhappiness, lethargy and sluggishness. If you are in a good mood, then even dull training can be enjoyable.

Your mood is completely under your control. You can improve you mood in the following ways: through positive thinking and suggestion, by treating each element of a performance individually, by using imagery, by reviewing your goals to remotivate yourself, and by smiling (Orlick 1994). Distraction is damaging to you performance because it interferes with your ability to focus and disrupts flow. It interferes with the attention that you need to apply to maintain good technique.

This causes stress and consumes mental energy that is better applied somewhere else. Distraction can come from a number of sources, both internal and external” (Rainer 1987), such as: the presence of loved ones you want to impress, family or relationship problems, media, teammates and other competitors, coaches who do not know when to keep quiet, frustration at mistakes, unjust criticism, poor refereeing decisions, or changes in familiar patterns. What is worth remembering is that when you are distracted, lose concentration, and make a mistake, you have not lost your skills. You have just lost your focus. The following points help to deal with distractions.

Your reaction to distractions is controllable, think positive, prepare for distractions, expect distractions, learn how to change bad moods to good moods, sleep and rest more before big events (Bull 1983). Too much Stress and Anxiety can seriously affect your ability to focus on your skills and low in a performance. It is important that you recognize you are responsible for your own stress levels. Very often they are a product of he way you think. Always be aware that others may be out to manipulate your stress levels. A certain level of Stress is needed for optimal performance.

If you are under too little stress then you will find it difficult to motivate yourself to give a good performance. Too little stress expresses itself in feelings of boredom and not being stretched. At an optimum level of stress you will get the benefits of alertness and activation that a good level of stress brings. Excessive levels of stress damage performance and damage your enjoyment of the sport. When you are in a competitive environment or are in an environment in which ou are being evaluated, Adrenaline may enter your bloodstream.

This has the following positive and negative effects on you body. Those positive include: adrenaline causes psychological arousal, it causes alertness, it prepares the body for explosive activity. Those negative effects include: it inhibits judgement, and it interferes with fine motor control (Morris 1992). Anxiety is different from stress. Anxiety comes from a concern over lack of control over circumstances. In some cases being anxious and worrying over a problem may generate a solution, normally, however, it will just result in egative thinking (Bull 1983).

You need mental energy to be able to concentrate your attention and maintain good mental attitudes. If you are concentrating effectively then you can conserve physical energy by maintaining good technique when your muscles are tired. You can waste mental energy on worry, stress, fretting over distractions, and negative thinking. Over a long competition, these not only damage enjoyment, but also drain energy so that performance suffers. It is therefor important to avoid these by good use of sports psychology, and by resting effectively between events and by ensuring that you sleep properly.

A brief out line of basketball is it is a game played with a pumped round ball between two teams of five players each on a rectangular court. In professional or minor competition basketball is usually played indoors, but it does not need to be. Each team tries to score by shooting the ball through the other teams goal at each end of the court, above their heads. The goal is a round hoop and net called a basket. The team scoring the most such throws, through field goals or You do not need a lot of equipment to play basketball all you need is a basketball, a court and one or two basketball rings.

The basketball court is in a shape of a rectangle ranging in size from about 29 m by 15 m to about 22 m by 13 m. At each end of the court is a backboard placed behind the ring, measuring usually about 2 m by 1 m, this is also in a rectangular shape although in some collages in America it is more in a shape of this. Each normal rectangular backboard is about 2. 7 m (about 9 ft) above the court. The baskets are attached firmly to the backboards about 3 m (about 10 ft) above the playing surface. Each basket is about 46 cm (about 18 in) in diameter and consists of a round hoop, or metal ring, from which a wide-meshed white net is hung.

The regulation basketball is an inflated, leather- or nylon-covered sphere that weighs from 567 to 624 g (20 to 22 oz. ) and has a circumference of about A conventional basketball team, which is directed by a coach, is made up of two forwards, two guards, and a center. The two forwards are usually the better of the shooters and are really quick. In the jump they both stand between the circle and the opponents basket. The two guards stand in the backcourt. The center, usually the tallest player on the team who stands inside a circle that has a radius of about 61 cm (about 24 in) and is located midway along a line painted across

The game commences with the tip-off, when the referee tosses the ball into the air over the center circle, in which the opposing centers stand face to face. The centers then leap into the air and attempt, with their hands, to tap the ball to their teammates. The team that gets the ball attempts to advance it toward the basket defended by the opposing side, in order to try for a field goal, or basket, scoring two or three points, depending on the player’s distance from the basket. A player may advance the ball by passing it to a teammate or by bouncing (dribbling) it continually along the floor while running toward the basket.

After a basket is scored, the opposing team puts the ball into play from behind its end line and in turn tries to move the ball upcourt to score. How is the game structured in the Olympics In the Olympics basketball the Officials consist of a referee, one or two umpires, one or two scorekeepers, and one or two timekeepers. The referee is in charge of the game. The referee and umpires operate on the court to ensure that the game is played by the rules. They both can call any foul or violation they see anywhere on the court. Usually, one official operates near the offensive team’s basket and the other near the division line.

The officials reverse positions when the teams move to the other end of the court. If a second umpire is used, he or she stands near a sideline. To call a violation or foul, the official blows a whistle to stop play and the clock. The official explains the violation or foul, usually with a hand or arm signal, and enforces the penalty. The game then resumes. Because around the world basketball has little changes from one country to the other when the Olympics are played some one has to make the decisions on how it is going to be played.

No matter how the rules are decided it would not be much f a change from where ever the basketball players have come from to make it difficult to play. In the Olympics the games is set out as one big knock out game to decide who plays in the finals to become number one in the world. All the teams have to try not to get kicked out by loosing games while trying to knock the other teams out of the competition. Which leaves the basketball players with an enormous amount of pressure on them. The basic rules to basketball are fouls, travelling, double dribbling, the three second violation, foot violation and finally out of bounds.

To get a foul in basketball you are usually hit or pushed in some way by the opposing side. To travell in basketball you will either take to many steps before bouncing the ball, or after bouncing and stopping you start to bounce the ball again. To double dribble you must jump in the air with the ball in your hands and land again with out passing or shooting the ball. Someone playing offence and staying in the key for longer than three seconds or more causes the three-second violation. Foot violation in exactly what it sounds like, it is a violation made by someone kicking the ball.

Last but not least is going over the boundary line with the ball. All of these things are not allowed in basketball and I should know as I play in real competition. For almost all off the rules the referees have made some kind of body signal to tell everyone what just happened with out yelling it so everyone can hear. Below you can see some of the following signs the referees make. The success of international basketball was greatly advanced by Forrest C. Allen, a Naismith disciple and a former coach at the University of Kansas, who led the movement for inclusion of basketball in the Olympic Games in 1936 and from then

Details of any Australians who has competed at the Olympics in this event One Australian basketball player who has not only participated in one Olympics is Andrew Gaze. Andrew Gaze has played with the Melbourne Tigers for his whole carrier in the National Basketball League the NBL. At one stage of his long and successful carrier he decided to up grade him self by competing in the National Basketball Association the NBA. This did not really work out for him so he came back to Australia and continued playing with the Melbourne Tigers. To say the most I think a lot of his fans and also his team preferred it this way.

Andrew Gaze is more of a offensive player as he is known for his pure shooting skills as his was voted best pure shooter in 1994 yet did not get a single vote for his Changes that have occurred over time Changes in the Game. Soon after Naismith invented basketball, changes were adopted to improve the sport. In 1893, metal hoops with net bags attached replaced the wooden baskets. Officials pulled a cord attached to the net to let the ball drop out. Baskets with bottomless nets came into general use about 1913. The backboard was introduced in 1894. That year, larger balls replaced soccer balls. In 1932, the 10-second rule was adopted.

This rule stated that the offensive team must advance the ball across the division line within 10 seconds or lose possession. Once the ball crossed the line, the offensive team lost possession if a player took the ball back over the line. This rule eliminated wasting time with the ball in the backcourt. Until 1937, a center jump was held after every field goal. Beginning in 1937, the defensive team received the ball out-of-bounds In 1935, a rule was adopted that stopped any offensive player from standing in the free throw lane for more than three seconds. In 1955, the foul lane was widened to 12 feet (3. eters) from the previous 6 feet (1. 83 meters).

These changes resulted in more offensive movement and less rough physical contact near the basket. Early basketball had little scoring. Players basically used two shots; the lay-up and a two-handed set shot. Hank Luisetti revolutionized the game by popularizing a one-handed shot. Luisetti was a star for Stanford University from 1935 to 1938. His one-handed shot could be released quicker than the two-handed shot and was more difficult to defend. The one-handed shot was the most popular shot in basketball until Joe Fulks popularized the jump shot.

The jump shot became the most popular shot in basketball and greatly increased scoring. James Naismith, a Canadian, invented basketball in 1891. Naismith was a physical-education instructor at the School for Christian Workers (now Springfield College) in Springfield, Massachusetts. Luther H. Gulick, head of the school’s physical-education department, asked Naismith to create a team sport that could be played indoors during the winter. For his new game, Naismith decided to use a soccer ball because it was large enough to catch easily. He then asked the building superintendent for two boxes to use as goals.

The superintendent had no boxes but provided two peach baskets. The baskets were attached to a gymnasium balcony railing 10 feet (3 meters) above the floor. The first game took place between members of Naismith’s physical-education class in December 1891. Details of successful international competitors The most successful international competitors these days and for the last so many years is the American basketball team and for the last three Olympics known as the Dream Team. The American team is not only the best in the world it also the most popular as it is known right round the world.

The reason for winning basketball in the Olympic game is because of the great players like Michael Jordan, Karl Malone, Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, John Stockton, Scottie Pippen, Hakeem Olajuwon, Charles Barkley, David Robinson and so many more what do you expect. Another country that always does well in the Olympics is Yugoslavia. Just the last Olympics they came second in the world loosing against America. Yugoslavia might have a little bit more experience then some other countries lets say us, because players like Toni Kukoc have played for the NBA with the Chicago Bulls for some of his carrier and been able to o no and have great success.

If it weren’t for Americas team, Yugoslavia would be the best team in the world now until Details of any Olympic record holders or current Gold medallists Unlike swimming or running basketball is not a sport that tries to break records, as its only objective is to win the finals. The only true record holders could be America as they have won in the Olympics in a row for the longest time ever. Longer then any other country has yet proven. To tell you the truth I don’t think any one will ever either.

A brief out line of basketball is it is a game played with a pumped round ball between two teams of five players each on a rectangular court. In professional or minor competition basketball is usually played indoors, but it does not need to be. Each team tries to score by shooting the ball through the other teams goal at each end of the court, above their heads. The goal is a round hoop and net called a basket. The team scoring the most such throws, through field goals or foul shots, wins the game.

Equipment used You do not need a lot of equipment to play basketball all you need is a basketball, a court and one or two asketball rings. The basketball court is in a shape of a rectangle ranging in size from about 29 m by 15 m to about 22 m by 13 m. At each end of the court is a backboard placed behind the ring, measuring usually about 2 m by 1 m, this is also in a rectangular shape although in some collages in America it is more in a shape of this. Each normal rectangular backboard is about 2. 7 m (about 9 ft) above the court.

The baskets are attached firmly to the backboards about 3 m (about 10 ft) above the playing surface. Each basket is about 46 cm (about 18 in) in diameter and consists of a round hoop, or metal ring, from which a ide-meshed white net is hung. The regulation basketball is an inflated, leather- or nylon-covered sphere that weighs from 567 to 624 g (20 to 22 oz. ) and has a circumference of about 76-cm (about 30 in). What is involved A conventional basketball team, which is directed by a coach, is made up of two forwards, two guards, and a center.

The two forwards are usually the better of the shooters and are really quick. In the jump they both stand between the circle and the opponents basket. The two guards stand in the backcourt. The center, usually the tallest player on the team who stands inside a circle that as a radius of about 61 cm (about 24 in) and is located midway along a line painted across the center of the court. The game commences with the tip-off, when the referee tosses the ball into the air over the center circle, in which the opposing centers stand face to face.

The centers then leap into the air and attempt, with their hands, to tap the ball to their teammates. The team that gets the ball attempts to advance it toward the basket defended by the opposing side, in order to try for a field goal, or basket, scoring two or three points, depending on the player’s distance from the basket. A player may advance the all by passing it to a teammate or by bouncing (dribbling) it continually along the floor while running toward the basket. After a basket is scored, the opposing team puts the ball into play from behind its end line and in turn tries to move the ball upcourt to score.

How is the game structured in the Olympics In the Olympics basketball the Officials consist of a referee, one or two umpires, one or two scorekeepers, and one or two timekeepers. The referee is in charge of the game. The referee and umpires operate on the court to ensure that the game is played by the rules. They both can call any foul or violation they see nywhere on the court. Usually, one official operates near the offensive team’s basket and the other near the division line. The officials reverse positions when the teams move to the other end of the court.

If a second umpire is used, he or she stands near a sideline. To call a violation or foul, the official blows a whistle to stop play and the clock. The official explains the violation or foul, usually with a hand or arm signal, and enforces the penalty. The game then resumes. Because around the world basketball has little changes from one country to the other when the Olympics are played some one has to make the ecisions on how it is going to be played. No matter how the rules are decided it would not be much of a change from where ever the basketball players have come from to make it difficult to play.

In the Olympics the games is set out as one big knock out game to decide who plays in the finals to become number one in the world. All the teams have to try not to get kicked out by loosing games while trying to knock the other teams out of the competition. Which leaves the basketball players with an enormous amount of pressure on them. Basic Rules The basic rules to basketball are fouls, travelling, double dribbling, the three econd violation, foot violation and finally out of bounds. To get a foul in basketball you are usually hit or pushed in some way by the opposing side.

To travell in basketball you will either take to many steps before bouncing the ball, or after bouncing and stopping you start to bounce the ball again. To double dribble you must jump in the air with the ball in your hands and land again with out passing or shooting the ball. Someone playing offence and staying in the key for longer than three seconds or more causes the three-second violation. Foot violation in exactly what it sounds like, it is a violation made y someone kicking the ball. Last but not least is going over the boundary line with the ball.

All of these things are not allowed in basketball and I should know as I play in real competition. For almost all off the rules the referees have made some kind of body signal to tell everyone what just happened with out yelling it so everyone can hear. Below you can see some of the following signs the referees make. When it began in the Olympics The success of international basketball was greatly advanced by Forrest C. Allen, a Naismith disciple and a former coach at the University of Kansas, who led the movement for inclusion of asketball in the Olympic Games in 1936 and from then onwards.

Details of any Australians who has competed at the Olympics in this event One Australian basketball player who has not only participated in one Olympics is Andrew Gaze. Andrew Gaze has played with the Melbourne Tigers for his whole carrier in the National Basketball League the NBL. At one stage of his long and successful carrier he decided to up grade him self by competing in the National Basketball Association the NBA. This did not really work out for him so he came back to Australia and continued playing with the Melbourne Tigers. To say the most I hink a lot of his fans and also his team preferred it this way.

Andrew Gaze is more of a offensive player as he is known for his pure shooting skills as his was voted best pure shooter in 1994 yet did not get a single vote for his defense. Changes that have occurred over time Changes in the Game. Soon after Naismith invented basketball, changes were adopted to improve the sport. In 1893, metal hoops with net bags attached replaced the wooden baskets. Officials pulled a cord attached to the net to let the ball drop out. Baskets with bottomless nets came into general use about 1913. The backboard was introduced in 1894. That year, larger balls replaced soccer balls. In 1932, the 10-second rule was adopted.

This rule stated that the offensive team must advance the ball across the division line within 10 seconds or lose possession. Once the ball crossed the line, the offensive team lost possession if a player took the ball back over the line. This rule eliminated wasting time with the ball in the backcourt. Until 1937, a center jump was held after every field goal. Beginning in 1937, the defensive team received the ball out-of-bounds after a field goal. In 1935, a rule was adopted that stopped any offensive player from standing in he free throw lane for more than three seconds. In 1955, the foul lane was widened to 12 feet (3. meters) from the previous 6 feet (1. 83 meters).

These changes resulted in more offensive movement and less rough physical contact near the basket. Early basketball had little scoring. Players basically used two shots; the lay-up and a two-handed set shot. Hank Luisetti revolutionized the game by popularizing a one-handed shot. Luisetti was a star for Stanford University from 1935 to 1938. His one-handed shot could be released quicker than the two-handed shot and was more difficult to defend. The one-handed shot was he most popular shot in basketball until Joe Fulks popularized the jump shot.

The jump shot became the most popular shot in basketball and greatly increased scoring. Any other interesting facts James Naismith, a Canadian, invented basketball in 1891. Naismith was a physical-education instructor at the School for Christian Workers (now Springfield College) in Springfield, Massachusetts. Luther H. Gulick, head of the school’s physical-education department, asked Naismith to create a team sport that could be played indoors during the winter. For his new game, Naismith decided to use a soccer ball because it was large nough to catch easily. He then asked the building superintendent for two boxes to use as goals.

The superintendent had no boxes but provided two peach baskets. The baskets were attached to a gymnasium balcony railing 10 feet (3 meters) above the floor. The first game took place between members of Naismith’s physical-education class in December 1891. Details of successful international competitors The most successful international competitors these days and for the last so many years is the American basketball team and for the last three Olympics known as the Dream Team. The American team is not only the best in the orld it also the most popular as it is known right round the world.

The reason for winning basketball in the Olympic game is because of the great players like Michael Jordan, Karl Malone, Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, John Stockton, Scottie Pippen, Hakeem Olajuwon, Charles Barkley, David Robinson and so many more what do you expect. Another country that always does well in the Olympics is Yugoslavia. Just the last Olympics they came second in the world loosing against America. Yugoslavia might have a little bit more experience then some other countries lets say us, because players like Toni Kukoc have played for the NBA ith the Chicago Bulls for some of his carrier and been able to go no and have great success.

If it weren’t for Americas team, Yugoslavia would be the best team in the world now until proven different. Details of any Olympic record holders or current Gold medallists Unlike swimming or running basketball is not a sport that tries to break records, as its only objective is to win the finals. The only true record holders could be America as they have won in the Olympics in a row for the longest time ever. Longer then any other country has yet proven. To tell you the truth I don’t think any one will ever either.

People have always wanted to fly; snowboarding can give that feeling. Imagine getting launched fifteen feet into the air and sixty feet down a ski slope. This is just one of the thrills of snowboarding that has been suppressed for a number of years. Snowboarding had a hard struggle to get where it is today and has helped spark a new era for skiing. If skiers and snowboarders respect the rights of others then there would be no problems and all of the thrill seekers at the resort could have an enjoyable experience. Since the late 1980s, snowboarding has been the overwhelming choice of young people entering the market.

According to a NSAA, National Ski Areas Association, commissioned study, nearly two-thirds of young people ages 12 to 24 chose snowboarding over skiing. (Hood) When snowboarding began to go mainstream it forced skiing to go extreme. Major players (the major ski manufactures) in the ski industry are promoting the generations of hot-dog skiers to put a fresh face on skiing and give the sport a much needed makeover. (Hood) Snowboarding has opened a whole new era for skiing and there is no turning back now. All the skiers and boarders are going extreme.

There is an increased danger but with some common courtesy accidents can be avoided and all of the skiers and boarders can get the chance to fly for a while. Snowboarding is a relatively new sport. It has only become popular in the last ten years. A small group including Jake Burton, Chuck Barfoot, and Tom Sims pioneered snowboarding in the late 1970’s. All of whom now head or have lead snowboard companies with Burton being the largest snowboard manufacturer in the world. (Wallace, pg. 8. 02) Most snowboarders got chased off the slopes when they tried to ride.

No self-respecting ski resort would have them. Surfing the slopes, shredding the air and snow in equal measures – kicking it – they always had to be on the lookout for the glowering ski patrol. (Gordon) “I was kicked off countless ski areas back in the 1960s, ’70s and even in the ’80s,” Sims says of the difficulties he once encountered from the established Alpine ski community. (Atkin) In the early 1980’s snowboarding began to be accepted by a few resorts. The first snowboarder hit the slopes of Whistler, British Columbia, around 1981. The call came up to ski patrol director Ken Newington.

The call was from a lift operator who said there was a guy with a board that wanted to go up the mountain. Ken told the operator to send him up and he asked Hugh O’Reilly, who is now Whistler’s Mayor, to take him out on the slopes and check him out. O’Reilly took him to the top of one of the slopes and after 300 or 400 yards decided he looked fine. Ken then issued him a sticker for the guy’s board with Ken’s signature on it so he could ride the lifts without any problems. (Andrew, pg. 12) Seventeen years later it is expected that 4. 5 million snowboarders will hit the slopes this season.

That is three times the number in 1990. Resorts like snowboarders now; the one-time outlaws have become the resorts’ salvation. Snowboarders account for seventy percent of business for the resorts in early winter. (Gordon) Resorts also realize that snowboarders love their sport and have money to spend. The average boarder is on the slopes three times as often per year as the average skier. (Wallace, pg. 8. 13) With all of the attention going to snowboarding with all of its high-flying aerial maneuvers, skiing had to turn to its bad boys as the future of the sport to get young people interested in the sport.

Ski resorts are loosening up some of the restrictions on the mountain giving skiers a chance to go for the big air, much like snowboarders have been doing, against regulations, for years. Major ski resorts are opening up their snowboard parks to skiers so they can push the extreme image in their marketing campaigns. (Hood) Snowboarding has opened a whole new era for skiing. Major ski manufactures are creating “teams” of free ride, extreme, skiers. The manufactures pay the members up to $100,000 a year to ski and sharpen the company’s image.

Television is also playing a big role in the attempt to get today’s youth interested in skiing. Sponsors are lining up behind big-air and extreme-skiing competitions. ESPN’s Winter-X Games featured extreme skiing for the first time in 1998. K2’s Jeff Manchara stated, “Why is it happening now? Because there is an opportunity with the plateauing of snowboarding. There’s an opportunity for skiing to shine, to kind of come of age again. Skiing never really lost its cool. It was just overshadowed by snowboarding.

Skiing has even taken snowboarding tricks and used the tricks for every competition including the Olympics. Olympic gold medalist Johnny Mosely’s 360 degree-mute-air grab in the mogul competition is straight out of snowboarding’s bag of tricks. (Hood) Shane McConkey, 1995 national extreme skiing champion said in reference to extreme skiing, “It’s just the next level for a lot of people. It use to be considered extreme, and crazy and ridiculous, a bunch of young guys out there chucking their carcass off a cliff. People have now realized that that’s top-level skiing at it’s finest.

It’s not extreme or crazy or anything. It’s the sport of free-riding and it’s growing huge because people finally understand it. “(Hood) There is still the debate of which is more fun. Tom Sims said, “In my opinion, Snowboarding is inherently more fun. It’s hard to explain, but when you do a snowboard turn and can drag your hand in the snow and pretend you’re on a twenty-foot wave, it just seems more fun than planting a ski pole and making a turn. ” (Atkin) It does not matter which is more fun as long as the skier or snowboarder is having fun doing it.

The major thing is that skiers and snowboarders need to respect the rights of others. When a skier or snowboarder goes to the resorts they need to follow the “Your Responsibility Code” which states:

1. Always stay in control and be able to stop to avoid other people or objects. 2. People ahead of you have the right of way. It is your responsibility to avoid them. 3. You must not stop where you obstruct a trail or are not visible from above. 4. Whenever starting downhill or merging onto a trail look uphill and yield to others. 5. Always use devices to help prevent runaway equipment. 6. Observe all posted signs and warnings. Keep off closed trails and out of closed areas. 7. Prior to using any lift, you must have knowledge and ability to load, ride and unload safely. (Wallace, pg. 8. 00. 03)

This code has been written and endorsed by the National Ski Patrol and numerous other organizations to help make the skiing or snowboarding experience enjoyable. Studies show that the injury rate for skiers and snowboarders are about equal. The injuries however are different, skiers are more likely to get knee injuries and snowboarders are more likely to hurt the wrist or arm.

Skiers and snowboarders can lessen the chance of injury by taking lessons and using the proper equipment. (Wallace, pg. 8. 11) Skiers and snowboarders are on the slopes to have fun, not to fight. There is however, a lot of friction between skiers and snowboarders at the resorts. Skiers complain that snowboarders hurt the slopes by scraping off the snow and scare people with the large groups and loud sounds of a snowboard carving on ice. The complaint about scraping off the snow can be said about skiers too. It does not matter if a person is on one board or two it is the fact that the person is a beginner.

Snowboarding gets blamed for it because the majority of snowboarders are beginners. Skiers complaining about the packs of snowboarders and the noise will have to learn to live with it. With ninety-seven percent of U. S. resorts allowing it, more than half of American resorts cater to boarders with half-pipes, its growth rate is over ten percent snowboarding is here to stay. Snowboard discrimination is like blaming a car for driving out of control instead of the driver. There are weird people out there on every vertical descent device.

It is the person, not the sport in which they are engaged in. Snowboarding is growing at a very high rate of speed. It is in the spotlight. For every outlaw snowboarder, who cuts you off, and is in the limelight, there are bunches who are civil and law abiding. (Wallace, pg. 8. 13) Many snowboarders complain that when snowboarding mainstreamed it hurt the sport. According to a Ski Patrol member at Seven Springs, “The style and image almost seems to be more important then the riding these days. I feel snowboarding has mainstreamed in a more positive way in the last couple years.

Greg has skied for nine years and has been snowboarding for four years. He also stated that, “I started skiing and when I learned to snowboard they helped each other out. I believe that snowboarding has helped my skiing significantly. ” Snowboarders have fought for the right to board. The image has changed from outlaw(the sport that no one would let on the slopes), to extreme(the sport everyone wants to try and use to show off or get attention. Snowboarding has taken all of the safety precautions when making equipment to help keep the riders injury free.

While snowboarders have been fighting for equal rights the boarders have also given skiing a much-needed face-lift and renewed interest in skiing. All of the people on the slopes whether skiers or snowboarders are there to have fun. Snowboarding had a hard struggle to get where it is today and has helped spark a new era for skiing. Snowboarders love the sport so much that boarders have conformed to fit in and be allowed on the slopes. Snowboarders have worked hard to be allowed on the sloped so end the friction and have fun going extreme.

From reducing risk of heart attack to simply providing more energy, weight training plays an important role in ones life. One very popular method of weight training is to increase mobility and build strength and stamina. This method is known as circuit training. Circuit training has been around for decades and offers a wide variety of applications and benefits. This workout is performed both mentally and physically. The weight training participant performs one set of an exercise then immediately performs a set of another exercise in succession without rest; ne right after another.

Exercise can be sequenced in a variety of combinations, which isolate single muscles, a group of muscles, or total body training. Since muscles can only contract for long periods of time when sufficient amounts of oxygen are available, mental focus during circuit training is directed towards the heart and lungs, as opposed just the muscles during conventional training. The cardiovascular and respiratory systems feed our working muscles with oxygen filled blood that is eventually fueled by body fat.

During conventional training the focus isnt on the eart and lungs because the cardio/respiratory system rests between exercises, allowing the ATP to LA cycle to be the energy supplier. (This cycle must be depleted in order for the body to burn fat). By performing circuit training, you dont give your heart or lungs a chance to relax, which keeps the ATP to LA cycle depleted. In addition to increasing heart and lung conditioning, enhancing your ability to use oxygen, ad burning fat, impressive muscular shape and strength gains will result from doing any circuit-training workout.

Research studies consistently show that leans body mass increases with a course of circuit training. A 1-3. 2 kg gain in lean body mass can be expected with a consequent decrease in relative fat mass of 1-3%, total weight remaining unchanged. This is a major benefit of circuit training, especially for those who want to get in shape and tone up their muscles. With traditional aerobic training, a decrease in relative fat mass has led to a decrease in total weight with little change in lean body mass.

The resistance work involved in the circuits encourages muscle-mass evelopment, and thus any fat loss is replaced equally by muscle gain. This makes it easier to maintain the lower body fat or reduce body fat even further because the increase in lean body mass pushes up basal metabolic rate and overall calorie expenditure. These body-composition changes would support the use of circuit weight training in a health and fitness setting where toning up, but not losing weight, were the major goals. Circuit training is a great form of exercise, will help almost anyone improve their health and offers lots of benefits.

Swimming was invented before recorded history. Humans discovered how to swim by accident. A person probably fell into the water and struggled to shore using a dog-paddle stroke. There was an Egyptian hieroglyph for swimming dating from 2500 BC. The ancient Greeks and Romans made swimming an important part of their military training programs. There have been known swimming contests that were organized in Japan as early as the 1st century BC. During the Middle Ages in Europe, swimming declined in popularity.

People felt that the water was contaminated and a source of disease. Not everyone feared the water, however, Louis XI reportedly swam daily in the Seine. During the early 19th century, swimming enjoyed a revival, especially in England, Lord Byron swam the Dardanelles river, to prove that the mythological hero Leander could have done it. Organized competitive swimming began in England in the 1840s. In 1844 the British were surprised when two American Indians demonstrated the efficiency of a method of swimming similar to the modern crawl.

The British still swam with the head above the water, a holdover from the days when people believed that the ater was contaminated. An overhand stroke was introduced into England in 1873 by J. Arthur Trudgen, who had seen South American Indians using this method to swim really fast. When the flutter kick was introduced, the modern “Australian crawl” was born, and this stroke has since become the most common and most important swimming stroke. To swim well u need to know how to coordinate your arms and legs to get you through the water.

At first you will probably need to have lessons. Also to swim u need agility and just gravity. Swimming also requires balance and quickness in some cases. Not much is needed to know if you want to swim. Swimming improves heart and lung efficiency, enhances muscle strength and endurance, improves flexibility, and reduces stress. Its easy on the joints, and uses more muscles than most other forms of exercise. Although swimming burns a great deal of calories, recreational swimmers tend to lose less weight than would be expected from other types of aerobic activity.

Scientists say that cold water removes heat from the body, stimulating appetite to keep the body warm. Exposure to cold water may encourage the body to maintain fat stores for insulation. To lose weight by swimming, its necessary to cut down on the calories you eat, and to swim fast enough and long enough. Swimming can burn more than 660 calories an hour when performed correctly and causes less injuries to joints and muscles than aerobics or jogging. It takes only three hours a week of strenuous swimming to improve flexibility, increase strength and build cardiovascular endurance.

Swimming provides a good aerobic workout if 25% of the total laps are performed at aximum intensity. However, only 5% of those who swim do so at an aerobic pace. Although few doubt the aerobic benefits of swimming, studies comparing swimming with jogging, results found that swimmers lost less body fat than joggers. Apparently swimming causes an adjustment in how energy is burned, resulting in the burning of more carbohydrates than body fat. One reason might be that swimmers retain more body fat to insulate and maintain body heat. However, swimming works both the upper and lower body which jogging does not.

I grew up in front of the T. V. watching bone-crunching hits and massive home runs in old Cleveland Municipal Stadium. I saw the last game the Browns played there and I started bawling like a blubbering idiot when they left the field. Back then sports were much more simple. The games were played for fun. There were no high-school kids bringing down the quality of NBA games, There werent any greedy me-first 19 year olds trying to sue their way into the NFL. Nor were there any teams spending 190 million dollars to buy a World Series like the Yankees.

But when the 1995 NFL season ended I was finally introduced to the most horrid part of sports… economics. Economics ruined my favorite game and economics had taken away my favorite team. The Browns werent just my team, they were Clevelands team. They were taken from us because Art Modell couldnt force the taxpayers to build him a stadium. He had enough money to help Cleveland build a football stadium we could be proud of, but hed rather make money. Never mind the rich tradition of football we have in Cleveland. Never mind the fact that we were a playoff team the year before. The new stadium was going to cost him money.

Thats when I realized that allegiances and loyalty dont matter to owners or players. The only thing that matters to guys like Modell is the almighty dollar. Football is not the only sports that has been ruined by recent economic changes. Baseball has had its own struggles with economics. It starts with the large gaps between large and small market teams. While some small market teams like the Florida Marlins, Oakland As and the Kansas City Royals have been able to perform well, most like the Devil Rays and Pirates stink. The most telling statistic that shows this gap is that the Yankees have a 190 million dollar payroll.

That is a full 40 million above the team in second. The team with the lowest payroll is the Tampa Bay Devil Rays at 20 million dollars. That is a full 5. 2 million dollars less than Alex Rodriguez! One player makes more than 25 players! It is also $170 million dollars lower than the Yankees. So what does baseballs Commissioner, Bud Selig, do about this problem? He doesnt propose some sort of salary cap like the NFL, he says that the MLB needs contraction. Contraction?! He wants low market teams like the Tampa Bay Devil Rays out of baseball so he can keep the Yankees winning World Series why would he do this? MONEY!

The Yankees draw more viewers and therefore more money. When forced to create a cap he proposed a luxury tax threshold of 120 million dollars. Which means that if you pass this threshold you have to however much you are over back. So because the Yankees are 70 million over at 190 million, they have to pay an extra 70 million. This would work well if the luxury tax effected more than four teams! The Devil Rays are a full 100 million dollars below the threshold. This is why I pine for the days of old. The days when I could blindly worship my teams. The problem is that the current state of sport has soiled this loyal fans mind.

In 1788, one of the greatest days in sports, the first golf course was built in Scotland. Scotland is considered to be the birthplace of golf. The game of golf began its destiny in time towards becoming popular around the world. This weird and complex game did not reach the United States until 1844, in New York, where the first golf course was built. Some where in time the game of golf lost its prestige in the United States. The professionals are mostly the only ones that treat this game how it should be treated. Some Americans have no respect nd have no idea what they are doing to the game.

The Scottish are very different because they understand and treat the game how it should be treated, with prestige and etiquette. Golfers that have taken up the game in the states just don’t have the same attitude towards the game. I wish people would realize how the game is supposed to be played and treated. I think one of the main reasons golf is taken more serious in Scotland is because it originated there and everyone was taught to play it the correct way. In Scotland, you will never see anyone throwing a club or damaging the turf.

They always take great care of the course because they respect it. They know how rude it is to act like that and they are all about etiquette. Everyone knows this is a “gentleman’s game”, as many people have called it. They literally take it to heart, it is so impressive. When the Scottish play the game they follow the rules very strictly. They never touch the ball no matter how difficult or unlucky spot it ends up in. If it gets buried in the high grass or caught behind a tree, they won’t move it. They “play it where it lies”, as it is said.

They never bend the rules or shave strokes. They are completely honest with themselves and others. This type of behavior makes the game so much more fair and enjoyable because they don’t cheat other people or themselves. They take what they get and realize that it is a part of golf. The Americans, on the other hand, are a different story. For the most part they are totally opposite from the Scottish. I say most people because the professionals and some others understand and respect the game because they have been taught or brought up correctly.

Too many people want to throw clubs and damage the turf. It shows no respect and it makes them look like a fool. Etiquette is a major part of golf and not enough people display it. The Americans also don’t like to follow the rules. They take the easy way out, to try to get an advantage. When you do that you are beating no one but your self. They are always moving the ball, trying to get the best possible spot. Don’t touch it, play it where it lies, that’s what this games is all about. They are always bending the rules some way or shaving strokes.

The worst part is they don’t think it is cheating, they think it is okay. The Americans need to be more honest because in the long run it will help them and their golf game so much more. I am a perfect example of why this is true. I used to be a typical American and play like everyone else does. I didn’t realize this until one day when my dad caught me cheating when I was a freshman in high school. I would’ve rather got caught cheating by anyone else than my own father. It made me realize how golf is supposed to be played, with etiquette and honesty.

In conclusion I want everyone to realize how different these two cultures act ecause sometimes Americans think we know it all and do everything the right way. I am very thankful for the experience that I was in with my father. It made me realize how everyone around me was just as foolish as I was. Us Americans could learn a lot from the Scottish people. One of my dreams has always been to play golf in Scotland. When I arrived here at Butler I learned that once every four years the golf team takes a summer trip to Scotland to play golf for two weeks. I will definitely make sure that I qualify to go on that trip.

Imagine that you’ve just turned 16 and your parents bought you a brand new Mustang. You’re cruising on the street at approximately 25 miles per hour. So maybe you’re not breaking the speed limit, but everyone’s staring. You feel the light breeze through your hair. Then you’re in the air, 12 feet high. Finally, you land on your back and come this (gesture 6 in. ) close to cracking your skull. What happened? You were skating.

As Aaron Spohn, a well respected ramp builder for the National Inline Skate Series, Extreme Games, and many pro inline skaters, said, When you tell someone you are an in-line skater, you automatically assume they envision you sporting a tangerine body suit, waist pack and a pair of wraparound neon sunglasses. S1 Or maybe you see me as one of those with $35. 00 generic skates, moving my arms more than my legs and rolling down the street at a rate of 1 mile per day. This is not the type of skating I am talking about. I’m talking about aggressive inline skating.

Maybe this aforementioned misconception is due to the many aspects of inline skating, and the amount of people involved. About 12. 3 million kids are currently inline skaters. 2 There is a 57. 2% rise in participation in inline skating from last year, compared to basketball, which dropped 4. 9%, and football, which rose only 5. 8%. 3 This is obviously a growing sport, and it’s one that you’re probably already doing. Whether or not you want to do inline aggressive skating, it is one of the best all around sports because it provides benefits to three core areas: physical, social, and mental.

I believe I started inline skating in about seventh grade, and I would have to say I had no life before then. But I guess now, I still don’t have a life because all I do has to do with inline skating and its representation as a sport, which is why I am giving this speech. In the summer I skate every day for 4 or more hours. I have been acquainted with the manager of Team Paradise, a nationally recognized mail order store. I have also helped in the production of CDS Detroit products, made locally in Grosse Pointe.

Today I would like to talk to you, using my personal experience along with knowledge gained from magazines and other sources, about the physical, social and mental benefits of inline skating. One of the more popular ideas is that inline skating doesn’t provide physical training. On that note Physical benefits are found in inline skating. In fact, it has some of the most surprisingly positive benefits any sport can produce, proven by the Henry Ford Heart and Vascular Institute here in Michigan. Inline skating provides cardiovascular fitness, and it is an ideal low-impact strength builder.

How is this? Well, in terms of cardiovascular fitness, skating produces a higher heart rate response than does any other normal activity. 4 So if you were running instead of skating, your heart wouldn’t beat as much while running as if you were skating. Also, there are great fitness benefits that skating provides. If you are 140 lbs. and skate at 18 miles per hour, which is not uncommon, you could burn 600 calories in an hour. Impressive? Not to say the least. The study done at the Ford center also shows that skating in a upright position causes the calorie burning to increase by 10 percent.

In addition, the study shows that the burning of calories increases by a whole 50% when traveling three miles per hour faster than an average pace. 6 So by simply skating fast for an hour, you could burn off one fourth of your daily intake. The idea of low impact training in inline skating is surely a fact. Frank Fedel, who helped in the study at the Ford center, says that sports like running induce impacts of up to six times the body weight on the joints, while inline skating doesn’t have that Pounding.

S7 The skating helps build the knee joint because the low impact nature of the sport allows for the building of the muscles around the knee. Also, acceleration of the joints is brought up to seven times faster than during sports like cycling. Even Frank Andreu, a professional cyclist for the Motorola team, uses inline skating for training and maintaining his fitness level. 8 Skating provides social benefits you wouldn’t imagine. One of them would be acts of kindness of the people you meet. In Box magazine, Andy Kruse describes one of the common things to happen to skaters.

He met a skater, Angie Walton. After having lived in a tent for three months alone, Andy had his bike stolen, so he asked to stay at AngieUs house, and she let him in her backyard. She would have let him in the house, but there were already too many people in the house who she let in without pay. 9 Her kindness is not solitary. Aaron Spohn also allows people to stay in his house for free, and he has three halfpipes in his backyard. Skating is great in that it provides a feeling of social acceptance for those who are not normally accepted, and even those who are.

With 1,200 members in City Rollers, a Detroit based skate group, how hard could it be to meet someone skating? For example, after the death of his grandfather, skater Michael Buechner changed completely. Formerly a great student, he ended up considering suicide. Eventually, he ended up getting Pumped, or tortured, by his gang, and had his house robbed. Finally, he started skating, and now he has changed once again for the good. He recently appeared in a nationwide skating magazine and Roces, the Nike of skate companies, sent him a pair of three-hundred dollar skates for free.

Matt Mantz, who is now fourteen, once was just a normal kid. After skating, he became sponsored and ended up on the Disney channel, in a movie on ABC and on ESPN in the Extreme Games. 11 That type of exposure would have to improve your social and mental state. He now gets respect from hundreds of people years older than him, and he meets more girls than most 14 year olds would ever see in a year. Towards the end of the summer, our local skate group was featured in the newspaper and then featured on the six To clock news. Finally, skaters from other towns would start to skate with us.

We didn’t even know half the people for more than a day, and we seemed like friends for years. Certainly, being featured in a nationally read magazine, on ESPN, or working with hundreds or even several people you don’t know, like becoming a superstar, would have to improve your social status, and your mental state. Perhaps one of the most underestimated benefits of inline skating, particularly aggressive skating, is the mental benefits. As I mentioned before, any of the social benefits would also qualify as mental benefits in that they make for better self esteem.

Aggressive inline skating also gives confidence, and gives experiences to kids that would otherwise never be lived through. In the situation of Mike Buechner, Aaron Spohn says, [he] has something else he didn’t have in abundance before motivation. He is back in school nowIS12 In an interview with Andy Kruse, a K2 and former Team Rollerblade sponsored skater, he speaks of one of the great benefits of inline skating: [There are] no coaches to tell me to do this and that, or to run around the field when I mess up.

My punishment is hitting the pavement, and my reward is self-accomplishment. S13 I also believe in what he says-it is more fun to hit the ground and bruise myself than to go through being yelled at not only by my coach, but also half of my team. In this aspect, skating also helped me. Matty Mantz also has gained confidence through skating, his father says, it’s giving him confidence, focus and helping him to develop as a person. S This despite the fact that he moved, on his own, to California to skate. At last, he’s confident enough to be the 7th top ranked street skater in the world.

Another mental benefit is the rush of inline skating. The adrenaline produced from skating could probably beat that of fighting, traveling across a flat surface to place an object in a goal, sliding on dirt before someone slugs you with a ball, or even putting a ball inside a hoop. Also, nailing the trick that you’ve tried for, possibly, days, gives a feeling and builds confidence unlike doing a routine act such as running across a field. In the following skating video you will see, among other skating effects, the most widely publicized rail slide.

David Kollasch earned the respect of many through this video clip, which was shown on MTV, ESPN, PASS, and featured in several magazines. Later, you can hear the rush; when a skater lands off a handrail, you’ll hear a scream of excitement. You will also see a crash by Brian Smith towards the end. Although I couldn’t put it in the tape, he tries over 5 times afterwards, in trying to get the railslide right, which eventually builds his confidence. It is best put when he says, essentially, That ticked me off. Now I’m gonna do this rail. S Cetus take a look.

AJ Jackson, who grew up in South Central Los Angeles and became a sponsored Bauer skater, puts it well: it’s the most incredible, beautiful sport of all time. You know, football, baseball, hockey, they’re great, but this is an individual relief. 15 Odd to you as it may seem, I had an exhilarating experience this past summer which gave me a great rush. It was when I had been skating from the local park. I was skating among cars, in the driving lane, at about 20 in a 25 speed zone. Then the green light went red. I don’t use a brake, so I ended up going straight through, screaming something I shouldn’t say in school.

After I had passed it, I noticed a police car parked at the gas station at the intersection. But I was never caught. If you ask people in my skate group, you’ll hear stories of them hanging on to backs of semis, and most fun for at least them, being chased by police only to get away through roads cars can’t reach. All these activities produce an adrenaline rush that you can’t get anywhere else. As I mentioned earlier, you can feel a mental rush from skating that can’t be achieved in any other sport, and live through experiences you would otherwise be without.

Along with these mental benefits you can also gain confidence in all you do. Socially, you will meet thousands among thousands of people who have similar interests while skating, as we saw skaters are all courteous to others. Of course, you have also seen the proven physical benefits of skating: the cross-training possibilities, the fact that it burns more calories than running, and its benefits to lower and upper body muscles. For these benefits (mental, physical, and social), inline skating is one of the best all around sports. Skating has changed my life, and I believe it is the best sport ever.

I believe it will become the number one sport in participation if not only in America, but also in the world. There are skaters from Kuwait to Africa, Australia to Alaska and in Singapore and England. It is predicted to be the fastest- growing sport between now and 2001. It is on the National Sporting Goods Association list as one of the 20 top participation sports in America, while it overtakes football and softball. 16 Baseball, skiing, snowboarding, tennis and soccer aren’t even on the list, nor do they provide as many positive overall effects. Hopefully you have seen what skating can do for you in all three ways.

Well everyone has theyre own opinion about Michael Jordan, but one thing is certain, he is a phenomenal athlete with a unique combination of grace, power, artistry and the improvisational ability. He is not only the top player of his Era, but is quite possibly the best player to wear the uniform of a NBA team. He is the most recognizable athlete in the world and is believed to be the best there ever was, is, or ever will be. (NBA. com) A person to this magnitude has obviously a success, being able to have a family of his own and, knowing that there are thousands of people looking up to him, and being many peoples idol.

To be able to stand the pressure of being a national symbol of greatness, you have to have a driving force. This driving force has been known to be the edge a lot of people have needed to make it over. Michael Jordans family helped him to fight and become one of the most influential, successful, and professional sports figures ever. Body Michael Jeffrey Jordan was born on February 17, 1963, in Brooklyn, NY, to a proud Deloris and James Jordan. (Nba. com; BioLife. com) Now this very first point may seem like no big deal but its something in itself. Jordan almost wasnt born.

In 1963, when Deloris was carrying Mike her mother died unexpectedly causing her to fall into a deep depression and stress period. Fearing a miscarriage the family doctor ordered her to bed rest. (Greene 12; NBA. com) “I Davis 3 always said that Michaels birth was like a sign. I lost my mother while I was carrying Michael, and he was my godsend. Michael was the happiness he sent me after a very sad time in my life. ” Deloris (qtd. In Halberstam 48) “The near miscarriage was very bad. ” James (qtd. in Halberstam 49) Michael the Jordans 4th child lived in a pretty much average ouse, which was on the lower end of the economic pool.

When Mike was 2 he had a really close brush with death. James (Mikes father) was outside tuning up his car at his parents house. The ground was still soaked from the earlier downpour. Two extension cords let him stretch a lamp from the kitchen outlet to under the hood of his car. During his labor he saw something out of the corner of his eye. Mike had escaped his playpen and, was on his way to make it a father- son- project. James ran towards him bit it was too late. Mike walked right into the junction of the wires and began playing with them.

A sudden surge of current sent him flying back about 3 feet, where he landed in too much shock to cry. (Greats of the Game. com; BioLife. com) James put a net up in the backyard and the boys played all the time. Michaels older brother Larry always beat him. Growing up Mikes favorite sport was baseball, and he was quite good too! He was the MVP of Dixie League and received a scholarship to Mickey Owen Baseball Camp. Michael got better at basketball and, decided to try out for the Varsity Laney High Basketball Team but, wasnt good enough as a sophomore.

Jordan, as sophomore, played on JV and, averaged 27. 8 PPG. Jordan after junior year was Davis 4 invited to play at the 5-star Camp where colleges recruited. MJ won 10 trophies including 2 MVPs. The University of North Carolina recruited Jordan. Dean Smith the winningest coach in NCAA basketball history coached Mike. (Greene 52; Halberstam 27, BioLife. com) Most people thought that Mike would come and sit the bench. They were startled when they found out he was a season opener starter. (NBA. com) Mike had a great time playing for UNC, and his nest move was to become eligible for the NBA draft.

Mike was 3rd pick behind Hakeem Olajuwon (Houston) and Sam Bowie (Portland) (GreatsoftheGame. com) MJ of course, was drafted by the Chicago Bulls. He was playing there and doing well. Bringing home all types of titles, championships, and MVPs. Then suddenly everything changed. On July 23, 1993, James Jordan was taking a rest in his car, when he woke up and saw a gun pointed to his head. He was shot in what was called a random robbery. JORDAN LOST HIS BEST FRIEND! Later on October 6, of that same year, Jordan shocked friends and fans by announcing his retirement from the NBA.

During this he claimed that his reasons were not because of his fathers death but, more because he had nothing to prove anymore. He felt he needed to be with his family. This move right here should show more than anything that Jordans concerned with his family before anything else. With all the fame and fortune that basketball had and was givng Mike he decided to give it all up at the expense of his family. His next move was even more stunning, Major League Baseball. Mike signed a contract with the Davis 5 Chicago White Sox in 1994.

When MJ was still in the Majors he played in the Scottie Pippen Charity Game where he scored 52 points. Soon rumors began that Mike would be returning to the game of basketball. On March 19, 1995 those rumors proved true and Mike come out of retirement. In his 5th game back he scored 55 points. Jordan definately still had it. He also led his team to a second 3-peat. (three championships in a row) Jordan retired for good with 6 NBA finals MVPs. (BioLife. com) Conclusion Michael, the “perfect” player still needs his family. Mikes story goes to show that family is important.

Whether you family is your biological parents or parent, step parents or parent, grandparents, sisters or brothers, aunts or uncles, or you adopted or foster parents or parent, they are still your family. Family is a vital part of life, and love even more vital. One thing if you dont see anything else, see not to take advantage or take your family for granted because one day they may not be here. Dont forget about the people who made you who you are. Never get so full of yourself that you only care about what you do. Basketball is what Mike does, Michael Jordan is who he is.

It is found that women are not the only one’s dissatisfied with their appearance. A growing number of men among society are increasingly concerned with body image. Studies have found that dissatisfaction with body image among men is on the rise. Many male students are facing eating disorders in order to keep up with societies perfect body image. We see disorders, such as “dysmorphia” reaching a high point within the male population. Dysmorphia focuses on a “obsessional preoccupation” (p. ) of ones body image.

A patient suffering from this type of disorder would see a part of the body as “ugly”. In males a certain type called muscle dysmorphia, is seen, that has come of great concern. Muscle dysmorphia is induced by an obsessive-compulsive image of ones muscle tone. With this type of disorder, one might go to great lengths to fit the image they are looking for. Going to these lengths often causes harms to the body creating damage physically and mentally (e. g. one will take steroids).

When looking for answers to why this occurs research points at “magazines, motion pictures, toys and other media. The article gave insight to how action toys have played a part in creating negative body image. In the study, toys such as G. I. Joe figures, Star War and Star Trek characters, Superman, Spiderman, and Batman were studied, examining the evolution of the action figures throughout the years (from around the 60’s to the 90’s). Measurements were taken of the figures waist, chest, and biceps, showing the change in muscle tone over time.

The concern is that action toys present ideal body image setting an example that you must look like a superhuman body builder. The images portrayed exceed the level of muscle tone that can safely be achieved. These extreme measures are dangerous causing many to not eat right and take drugs. Males find that looking this way is the only way to fit within society. Although getting to this level is unsafe, the consequences are often overlooked. The GI Joe toy, when first introduced measured eleven and a half inches and although changed in 1973 to 1976, kept a reasonably life like body.

A new figure was put out discontinuing the eleven and a half-inch figure, by a series of three and three fourths inched figure in 1982. Ten years later a four and a half-inch action figure came out followed by a five inch during 1995. As the year passed the difference in the actions toys varied, since now they were more muscular. The toys were supposed to demonstrate more powerful behavior now that they were larger. This gives young boys the notion that in order to feel any sense of control you must be larger then others. The GI Joe figure has not only grown bigger but also more muscularly defined.

GI Joe, “for example, the earliest figure has no visible abdominal muscle: his 1975 counterpart shows some abdominal definition; and the 1994 figure displays the sharply rippled abdominals of an advanced bodybuilder”(p. 67). The bodybuilder image has replaced the life like body causing many to feel inferior if they do not fit this image. “The G. I. Joe Extreme would sport larger biceps than any bodybuilder in history. While early G. I. Joe figures may have resembled a little boy’s father, or older brother, present figures depict a physique, which is virtually unattainable by the human body.

The same discovery was made with Luke Skywalker and Hans Solo (Star Wars). These plastic figures are supposed to seem strong and powerful. The image being projected is that muscle makes you tougher; ordinary human bodies are not good enough, and apparently, Arnold Schwartzenegger is a little bit too puny as well. . “Luke and Hans have both acquired the physiques of bodybuilders over the last 20 years, with impressive gains in the shoulder and chest area”(p. 69). Although one can not be sure that young boys will be affected by playing with these toys, it can be observed that a change in society has occurred.

European settlers first came to America in 1742 to start over and improve their life styles. It was mostly European settlers that originated America. They did not have a good enough chance to make good money or support there family in Europe so they moved to a new nation to start over or to get away from the war. This is what European basketball players are doing now coming to the NBA in America to improve on there basketball skills as well as make more money. The NBA is the best way for any basketball player to make the most money and to promote themselves.

Lately in the NBA you might have noticed a lot more players from Europe playing for different teams in the league. Previously in the European players did not have the opportunity to play professional basketball for the NBA. Players that did get a chance rarely succeeded in the league of the worlds best basketball players, they were most likely traded until teams realized the little amount of talent compared to NBA superstars in the European players and then cut them. Currently that is a different story.

European players are not only good enough to play basketball for the NBA but they are making headlines and becoming superstars as Americans as well as people from Europe. Dirk Nowitzki is a great example of an European who was able to make it as a superstar in the NBA, he still travels home during the off season to visit family and work out in his old gym, which he now calls his summer gym because he only gets a chance to exercise there in the summer. By coming to the NBA to play basketball he has adapted our language as well as slang from MTV, BET and the NBA.

Since Dirk has come to the NBA he has improved his rebounds by three a game every three years making him a better player offensively off the boards and defensively off the boards. His European background helped shape him into the best basketball player he could be there but he needed better competition in order to further improve his game. He still trains with his same trainer and improves in the off season, but he would not be as good as he is today without playing against the best basketball players in the world.

Now in Europe many players are being scouted. To make the chances of European players better to make the big bucks and claim stardom in the NBA, the NBA and the European league agreed to make their rules the same as each others. They now both have the same eight second back court rule and a twenty four second shot clock rule, as well as making the three point line the same distance from the basket as each other. By doing this NBA scouts can compare European game play to NBA game play without making any distinctions.

There are many other players from Europe who have come to play in the NBA. Some known European players would be Peja Stojakovic, Vlade Divac and Hidayet “Hedo” Turkoglu, who all play for the Kings. With this noticeable to other European athletes they are starting early to set goals to reach the NBA for better opportunities. Whether its for more money or just to improve their game against better players who are in the NBA. One young 15 year old seven foot kid named Predrag Samardziski Practices six hours a day with 20 something pros to improve his game.

Since he is living in Yugoslavia he has more chance to practice because he does not have to go to school like and American teenager would. He just dedicates his life to becoming the best basketball player in the world. He is not held back by any NCAA rules or feel the pressure of any recruiters. “Samardiziski is in an ideal incubator and he knows it” (Bucher, 98). Doing this is taking not only European players to a new level, also the NBA will be at a new level.

When European looked to settle in America they seen it as a great opportunity to improve and make more money, America is still looked at as a way to improve and make more money in Europeans eyes when it comes to the NBA. But now it is a little different because the NBA is looking a European player to make them more money by giving more intense game play and making the game open and more accepted by a larger audience. Also the European basketball players are not necessarily looking to settle in America but to settle in the NBA.

The NBA features such star players as, Michael Jordan, Allen Iverson, Keith Vanhorn, and John Stockton. You could ramble on all day about Pro basketball. And two big questions always come up when talking about pro basketball. Why are 2/3 of the NBA players black? And do black and white players have two different techniques for playing the game of basketball? Jeff Greenfield cites in his essay The Black and White Truth about Basketball theories from the book Foul by David Wolf. In todays modern game of NBA basketball, over 2/3 of the players are black.

Greenfield also cites that over the last two decades, no more than three white players have been among the ten starting players on the NBA All-Star team (Greenfield 209). David Wolf claims this dominance of blacks in the NBA is due to a natural inheritance. Wolf says basketball is a pastime of the urban poor since the fact most of them dont have finances to access equipment for hockey, baseball, football, or other fairly expensive sports. And basketball is something they can feel pride about (Greenfield 210-211). Most of the urban poor are the black. And black star Penny Hardaway is a prime example of this.

Penny Hardaway is one of the NBAs most recognizable stars in todays game. He came from very poor black slums. Because he didnt have the money for football, baseball, or hockey, he turned to the cheap playground sport called basketball. Like many other black players in the NBA, Penny took pride in honing his skills on those playground courts in the slum. Basketball was an activity that kept Penny out of trouble (Fox Sports Net: Beyond the Glory). Based on this story of Penny Hardaway, I agree with Greenfield and Wolf when they say that black dominance in the NBA is due to natural inheritance, and basketball is a sport for the urban poor.

Greenfield stands by Wolfs idea; basketball isnt the same as it once was. I too can agree with Wolfs idea that basketball is the same as it used to be 50-60 years ago. Basketball was once a game for the Irish and Italian Catholics in Rockaway and the Jewish on Fordham Road in the Bronx. (Greenfield 210). Back in the beginnings of basketball ethnic names like Red Holzmans, Red Auerbach, and the McGuire Brothers were etched as stars of the NBA (Greenfield 210). But in the present names such Michael Jordan, Shaquille ONeal and Allen Iverson are a fixture of pro basketball with national television exposure and million dollar salaries.

This is a far cry from the old school basketball of white men with status playing it for leisure. Greenfield and Wolf believe there is a question of style with todays modern player. Black and white, are there two distinct styles of players in the NBA? Jeff Greenfield believes so. Greenfield believes the two most important traits that characterize black basketball is leaping ability and razzle-dazzle moves. When coaches see a white boy who can jump or who moves with extraordinary quickness, they say, He should have been born black, hes that good. (Greenfield 212).

This statement was used in the title to the hit film White Men Cant Jump. Most of the legendary jumpers in the NBA were black. Such players include Willis Reed, Julius Erving, and Wilt Chamberlain. In todays modern game razzle-dazzle moves are what its all about. Speed, mobility, quickness, and acceleration are traits that surround the black playground athlete and their razzle-dazzle moves. NBA supers stars of today such as Allen Iverson, Tracy MacGrady, and Vince Carter posses all of the before mentioned traits. Allen Iverson has great speed on the court.

Tracy MacGrady has quickness that nobody can match. And if youre looking to find someone that can run fast, move nimble and quick, and jumps like Air Jordan, watch the Vince Carter. Hes hailed as the next Michael Jordan. Iverson, MacGrady, and Carter are players that can be double teamed by the best defends in the NBA and they still can find ways to twist and contort their bodies around the defenders and throw or dunk the ball into the basket. Thus, I can agree with Greenfield when he claims a black player uses speed, quickness, acceleration, and leaping to his advantage.

Black players seem to use speed, quickness, mobility, and leaping to their advantage. But do white players use these same abilities to their advantage? Imaging a heated gymnasium in a small Midwest town during the middle of winter. Eight white boys suited up for a pick-up game of basketball. They play a game without frills, with out flow and rhythm (Greenfield 212-213). This type of picture is associated with the white mans game of basketball. It seems a far-fetched from the pickup games played by the blacks in the inner city. The so-called white player plays the game precise mechanics.

They dont have the great razzle-dazzle moves to the basket. They dont have height and mobility for rebound effectiveness. The white man runs. He runs from the opening jump to the final buzzer (Greenfield 213). This is the way Jeff Greenfield sees the white style of pro basketball. I agree with what Greenfield has to say. This is much different than that of a black player. White players Bill Laimbeer and Dan Majerle had very successful careers in the NBA. But neither of them did it with flash or style. They didnt run with enormous speed, they didnt have the moves stymie defenses.

Bill Laimbeer was one of the slowest centers in the league when he played, no one bragged about Majerles speed either. But they did one thing, they ran up and down the court, from baseline to baseline, back and forth under the basket, looking for the opening, the pass, the chance to take the high-percentage shot (Greenfield 213). Youd wonder what they are doing in the NBA until you saw them swing free and throw up the shot. They actually drained the ball more times than many of their black counterparts who had much more skills. Bill Laimbeer and Dan Majerle played hard.

They played hard from the tip-off to the final buzzer. In fact, Dan Majerle was the first and has been the only player to ever be a reserve on his team, but been selected to the All-Star Game. Stories like these prove the point that a white player uses a very plain approach to the game of pro basketball. Not everybody who read Greenfields essay will agree with his views on the styles of play in blacks and whites. But Greenfield does try to make it a little more clear blacks and whites do seem to have two distinct styles when playing basketball. As for me, basketball is an exciting sport that Ill always be a fan of.

Opening the door and walking in, you strike a gray plastic garbage can with your foot. You then look up to see a waterbed, covered in blankets, across the room. The carpet is grayish, with some sort of swirl design in it. Next to the garbage can is a white plastic clothes basket. This is jammed tight between the garbage can and the desk, which sits near the corner. The tops of the desk are white, but the supports are black. School books cover the bottom shelf, while the next two have miscellaneous items on them.

On the top shelf, an encased basketball sits. It’s an Olympic ball dipped in gold. Next to the ball, hanging on the gray, black, and white marble-like painted walls, is a tournament bracket for last year’s College Basketball Championship. Under the bracket is the light switch, and next to it is a black light. The next wall is bare, but in the corner, where the third wall meets it, there are six shelves. Those shelves have many different types of elephants. One of the shelves have a second black light on it.

The shelves meet a window, which is covered by some white blinds. At the end of the waterbed, on the final wall, there is some electronic equipment on more shelving. There is a variety of equipment, everything from games to a television. Everything on the shelves is in good condition. Following this wall is a second light switch for the closet. The closet has no doors on it, but is full of clothes. After the closet comes the door, in which you enter, and you exit.

When you are involved in athletics, you have to be competitive. You have to want to win more than anybody else. Athletes these days, however, are really taking winning to the extreme. Athletes today are using various supplements to increase their size, muscle mass, and their potential to perform well. Athletes have been taking all kinds of supplements to gain an edge on their opponents. Little do they know, these supplements are not FDA approved. No one knows the long-term effects of these supplements on the human body. The use of non-FDA approved supplements should be banned from sports.

Supplements are supposed to be taken to make up for a deficiency in some aspect of a persons diet. For example, if someone does not like milk and does not eat any foods that contain calcium, they could take a calcium supplement. But, athletes use supplements to lose body fat and gain muscle and strength. There are many different types of supplements. The two most popular these days are Creatine Monohydrate and Androstenedione. Creatine monohydrate, generally known as creatine is a popularly used supplement. Creatine occurs naturally in muscles, but many athletes or body builders take it to increase their strength and size.

When using muscles, a chemical called ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate) is broken down into ADP (adenosine DI-phosphate) and an inorganic phosphate. The release of the phosphate is what gives the muscles energy. Creatine, whether, the naturally occurring, or from a bottle or jar, combines with phosphate and can restore ADP back to ATP. Theoretically, this means more energy. But it does not come without a price. The manufacturers and advertisers for Creatine tell 2 athletes they should use the product because muscles contain an average of 3. 5 to 4 grams of naturally occurring creatine per kilogram of muscle.

However, this can be increased because up to 5 grams of creatine may be stored. (Passwater 3) So, by using their product, the full potential of muscle energy can be used. Basically what the company is telling you is to pay an outrageous amount of money to add 1 gram of creatine to your muscles. Also, taking creatine has many side effects, just as other supplements do. This is because the type of creatine you buy of the shelf is pure. The body gets its natural creatine from red meat. But, red meat is not one hundred percent creatine. The body cannot handle the potency of this supplement.

Another supplement commonly used by athletes is androstenedione, which is a hormonally based supplement that is supposed to help weight lifters add muscle. Andro is taken orally and goes to the liver. The liver destroys most of what is ingested, but the small amount that does survive combines with various enzymes and temporarily boosts testosterone levels. (Hawken 8) This boost in testosterone allows an athlete to perform at a level above what he usually does. If an athlete takes andro before he goes to the gym, he will be able to lift more, and thus increase strength and size.

Although it is not legally considered an anabolic steroid at this time, andro acts exactly as they do. If anabolic steroids and andro have the same effects, and steroids are illegal, then andro should also be illegal. The American College of Sports Medicine says anabolic steroids such as androstenedione as well as other dietary supplements should be reevaluated and considered drugs. Although they do make people better athletes, they are illegal and athletes should not use them. DHEA is a supplement in the same family as 3 andro, called prohormones. DHEA also raises the testosterone levels in the body.

There is very little scientific support of these prohomones. In fact, some preliminary evidence suggests that they may be counterproductive. In a well-controlled study recently published by the American Journal of the American Medical Association, androstenedione failed to boost muscle mass, strength and testosterone levels; instead, it boosted estrogen levels, which could potentially boost body fat instead of muscle. (Smeets) In that same study, the prohormone DHEA increased the risk of cardiovascular disease and also raised the estrogen levels in the body. This could potentially cause an enlargement of the breasts in men.

Why would an athlete want to risk major health problems and developing breasts? Good old-fashioned hard work is the way to get ahead in sports. Drug companies try to tell consumers about all the values of these drugs, without telling of the side effects. Basically, creatine and andro sounded like wonder drugs through advertising. These supplements have many negative side effects. Many doctors and experts in the field of sports medicine are very concerned with the use of sports supplements. If these products are coming out onto the market without previous testing completed, the users are put at great risk for harm.

It has also been reported that once the athlete stops taking the supplement, all of the muscle that they gained while taking the supplement will be turned into fat. These athletes should realize that they would not be able to take the drugs forever without serious side effects. If that is not incentive to not take these things, then nothing is. The manufacturers do not even have to prove that their products are safe before marketing them. There needs to be more regulations on sports supplements in 4 order to protect consumers. People who go out and purchase sports supplements often later regret doing so.

People are realizing that creatine is dangerous and that the initial claims made by the companies are false. It is not only individuals who are realizing that these supplements are dangerous, states and governments are also realizing this. New Jersey is trying to put a ban on creatine and eventually so will every state, which is positive because the ban will save people from their own ignorance. The drugs are not FDA approved because they are dangerous and as long as it does not state that it is a steroid on the bottle, it can be sold anyway.

It should be illegal to sell products that are not FDA approved because the companies are putting their own customers at risk by selling dangerous products. One of the most famous cases of sport supplements use was by Mark McGwire. Baseballs Sultan of Swing, Mark McGwire, was living on creatine as he chased Roger Maris home run record a couple seasons ago. (Matheson) McGwire was also taking andro, and the combination of these two supplements probably helped him to achieve his goal of the home run record. Even the people using it know that it is wrong to take it.

It gives them an unfair advantage over the people who care about their health and body and do not want to harm themselves on purpose. Sources say that McGwire was furious when word leaked out last season he was using it. (Matheson) Famous athletes who serve as role models to children should not be doing things that they are going to be ashamed of, or want to cover up. McGwire obviously questioned the morality of using a performance-enhancing supplement, 5 especially, since he is a role model. Once the season was over, and he broke the home run record and got his name in the record books, McGwire stopped taking andro.

A few days later he told reporters in St. Louis he stopped using andro four months before. (Matheson) The main reason for McGwires behavior reversal was that he had seen that people take creatine and andro modeling his behavior, and he stated in a press conference on CNN that he stopped because he doesnt want kids to take it for that reason. McGwire was right, kids do take it because of him, and reports say that the sale of andro increased by over 500% after word came out that he was using the supplement.

Matheson) One can only hope that the kids will again follow his lead and stop taking this harmful drug. Mark McGwire is not the only professional athlete who is taking dangerous supplements. Michelle Smith de Bruin of Ireland won three gold medals in the Atlanta Olympics. It was later revealed that she had been using andro. She was banned from swimming for four years because of it. She ended up appealing the drug charges, but was not taken seriously because she spiked her urine sample with alcohol. In the end, she retired from swimming.

Schnirring) The use of androstenedione is banned in almost every professional sport, the NCAA, and the Olympics, but not in professional baseball. There needs to be a uniform drug policy throughout all sports, not just certain ones. The use of sport supplements such as androstenedione or creatine is dangerous, and these drugs should be obtained on a prescription basis alone. The people who are using them are misinformed about the side effects that they might have. Athletes are willing to sacrifice their health and well being by taking androstenedione or creatine, in order to 6 erform outstandingly for one season.

The really bad part is that it is not just professional athletes taking supplements now. These days, teenage high school students are buying and using supplements such as creatine and andro. These young athletes have seen the success that supplements have produced, and want the same effect. They are usually willing to pay any price, and use any supplement, to gain success. The United States and the professional sports organizations need to tighten up legislation regarding these drugs. If nothing is done about this, many people will develop serious long-term medical problems.

A generic product is when a company places a broad definition on their product/services offered. The generic product offered by the World Wrestling Federation is violent entertainment. This entertainment can be seen as tame when compared to earlier forms. An example is in 15th century England people used to convene in the local town square to watch executions for a form of entertainment. Although this is probably not the type of entertainment that the WWF wants to be associated with but they both servers the same entertainment value.

The WWF offers the consumer entertainment that is staged. Everyone knows it, and people enjoy watching this because of its humorous content. It is truly amazing that these giant men have the ability to do these stunts. I think many people look up to these amazing athletes. That’s probably the biggest offering the WWF can give, is a group of role models for children in a country which compared to the rest of the world is morbidly obese.

I feel that the WWF’s roots are buried too deep for this negative publicity to affect them. New sponsors already have taken the place of old ones. Also, RC Cola, who has a strong hold on teenagers (which is the primary watchers), already took the place of Coca Cola who backed out of the advertising during Smackdown. Advertisers will always want to be associated with the WWF; their numbers are just that high.

The Bicycle began as a wooden push horse to a mode of transportation, as well as a sport. The future is bright for the bicycle, with its increasing popularity as well as the advancements in technology. The bicycles history dates back to the 1490’s. During this time Leonardo da Vinci, a famous artist, as an well as inventor created a primitive drawing of the bicycle. These pictures were more advanced then many ancestors of the modern day bicycle. Da Vinci’s sketches showed a bicycle with gears and a chain rotating the rear wheel, but these bikes were not manufactured until the mid to late 1800’s.

The first bicycle built was constructed by Baron Von Drai in 1817. His bicycle was called the hobby horse, its main body was made of wood and the front and rear were solid wooden forks allowing the rider very limited movement. It received the name hobby horse because of its size and shape. The hobby horse was ridden by the movement of your feet. (Like the Flintstones cartoon when Fred is driving his car. ) These bicycles were very popular among the rich of the time, since no one else could afford them.

Around 1863 many different inventors experimented with different ways to modify the out of date hobby horse, so with the new technology the new bicycle was known as the “Bone Shaker. “(Lehrer 43) It was named this because of the hard materials used to make this bicycle, most were made of a wood frame with steel wheels. The movement of peoples feet were still used. With the wheels being made of steel, riders had a bone shaking experience while people rode them on the cobblestone streets. In 1871 the more popular High Wheelers were being manufactured.

A High Wheeler was a bicycle constructed of solid steel with a huge wheel in the front averaging in size of 5-6 feet and a smaller wheel in the back averaging in height 2 1/2 feet. The advancement from the Bone Shaker was that there were handle bars to steer the bike with as well as pedals to put the immense thing in motion. To mount the bicycle took acrobatic skills which made it hard for the average person to learn to ride. The High Wheeler was the first affordable bike of the time, it only took the average worker 6 months worth of his salary to buy one. (McGurn 157)

A few years later in 1880 the tricycle was invented. Like tricycles of today they were made of steel and the pedals were located on the front wheel. These tricycles were used by the women, at the same time men were still using the High Wheelers risking the chance at breaking their necks. In 1890 the Safety Bike was invented. The safety bike was a giant step in the technology of bicycles, the wheels were now the same size, the bike now had pedals that connected to a crank with gears, and the bike featured a spring front and rear suspension for added comfort.

Only the extremely wealthy had the opportunity to purchase this bike because of its titanic price tag. This bike had technologies not used until the 1980’s. The 1890’s not only fashioned a bicycle for the wealthy but also for the common working people of the day. Common working class people were able to enjoy the bicycle as a mode of transportation as well as a recreational vehicle. (Ballantine 187) “Let me tell you what I think of bicycling. I think It has done more to emancipate woman all around the world. I stand and rejoice every time I see a woman ride by on a wheel.

It gives women freedom and self reliance. “(Susan B. Anthony, qtd. In Mozer) By the beginning of World War I American people became more interested in automobiles than in bicycles. Companies such as Sears, Mead, and Schwinn began to market bicycles for children. (Baranet 76) Present From the beginning of World War I to the early sixties bicycles lost its popularity that it had for one hundred and ten years. Then in 1962 the bicycle began to make its comeback. In 1962 the bicycle was modified from its single speed, kiddy bike format, to a more advanced speed machine.

The bicycle was reshaped so it was more pleasurable as well as comfortable for people of all sizes. Some advances to the standard bicycle were a new frame made of aluminum and light weight steel,10 speed derailer that allowed the rider different ratios of gearing that made the bike more convenient, hand brakes that were controlled from the handle bars, wheels that were made of rubber tubing with a more rugged rubber outer layer that protected the wheel from easily being punctured, and suspension was brought back again. (Sloan 249) All of these improvements made the bike of today much more comfortable as well as affordable.

During the sixties there was a shortage of oil in the United States that further helped the growth of bicycles among the public. The oil shortage caused the quantity of oil the decrease intensely, with this oil prices sky rocketed. Many Americans thought the prices were unreal and began to use bicycles as there mode of transportation to and from work since it did not need any oil or gas. In the early 80’s there was a craze about person physical fitness and the growth of bicycling further increased. The main focus point of the bicycling was by the upper middle class. The 1984 Olympics brought even more attention to future bicyclist.

It brought more attention by the United States doing so well in bicycling events, and from their success gear ratios got a lot larger to increase the speed of the bike they started as 10 speed to 24 speeds by the late 1980’s. (Lehrer 31) By the late 80’s bicycling became the 3rd most popular sport. The two other activities that finished behind bicycling were swimming and general exercises. With the increased grow came expansions on the sport. Some of the new modifications were BMX and flatland bicycling. BMX was an off road dirt jumping sport and flatland was a challenge of balance while the rider turned and rotated the bike.

In the 90’s mountain biking blew up in the United States. From the beginning of the bicycles life it remained a road based vehicle. Mountain biking grew so fast that by 1996 Mountain Bikers competed at the Olympics for the first time in Atlanta. Future In the future the sport of bicycling will continue to grow and the technology as well as the sport will be changing. The biggest changes in the world of bicycling will be in the type of material used, the expansion of the sport, the change in the bicycles components, improvements in design, and the change in style of the bike.

In the future bicycles won’t be made of heavy steel that was used in the 50’s and 60’s, bicycles of the future will be made of heat treated aluminum, titanium, and heat treated carbon fiber. These materials will be put into use to reduce the weight of the bicycle from being (in the 60’s) 60 pounds a bicycle, to meagerly weighing 10-12 pounds. (Kolin 134) The sport of bicycling will become more broad with various coed sports. A few of the new futuristic sports that are beginning to be developed today are downhill mountain biking, Salem mountain biking, and downhill speed biking.

Downhill mountain biking will be done in ski resorts in the off season, Salem mt. Biking will be raced on the ski resorts but in season on the snow, downhill speed racing won’t be done on fully suspended bikes but on sleek aerodynamic bikes down hills nearly 90 degrees steep. (Sloane 231) Parts of bicycles like the frame will be reduced in weight in many different types of ways. One way they will reduce the bikes weight is by changing the materials to carbon fiber, aluminum, and titanium. A lot of bike companies now sell parts made of these materials but at unbelievable prices ($8,000 for a carbon fiber frame.

Another way components will change is by getting rid of unneeded parts on a bike. An example of doing this is by changing styles of shifters from rapid fire index shifters to grip shifters that don’t have as many moving parts making it lighter by a few grams. Improvements on design will make bicycles more aerodynamic for the road and more durable for off road riding. A way they will improve a bicycles aerodynamics is by making the tubing thin and blade like allowing the bike to cut through the air, and durability of off road bicycles will be improved by thickening the joints of the bicycles and making the frame tubing larger.

The most important change will be the overall change in style. Back in the 60’s and 70’s the big handle bar banana bike seats were in, but in the future bicycles with carbon fiber rims, front and rear suspension, titanium allow brake boosters, and florescent colored frames that stand out will be a big trend in a few years. (Kolin 163) In conclusion the bicycle starting as a wooden push horse to a machine capable of going over 50 mph. has under gone a metamorphosis in its 200 year life. The future is bright with the advancement of its popularity and technology. Who knows where the bicycle will be 100 years from today?

Sport and aggressive behavior, Do sports create aggressive behavior, or simply attract people who are already aggressive? Aggression and sport have gone together as long as sports have been around, be it the players themselves, to the parents, coaches, or spectators, they just seem to be an inseparable part of each other. The term violence is defined as physical assault based on total disregard for the well being of self and others, or the intent to injure another person ( 2. Coakley).

Intimidation usually does not cause physical harm, but often is designed to produce psychological consequences, enabling one person to physically over power or dominate another. These statements as defined by the author, Jay J. Coakley, is what people today have made a must part on sport. Pleasure and participation sports absolutely cannot be grouped with power and performance sports when in relation to aggression. Pleasure sports are simply played for pleasure. Score is usually not kept. The athletes participating are usually on occasion doing it for fun and exercise.

A majority of athletes who have been playing sports since they were little, have probably been pounded into their heads that to be successful in sport, you need to be aggressive, and at some times, unnecessary. Also that to get what you want, you have to go at it with all force. Not that this is wrong but, this attitude in todays society has been a major problem factor to the athletes when they get older, to get into trouble with the law. Those long-term effects of so called discipline, patterns develops these destructive behaviors. (9.

Although some people are still in belief that aggressive behaviors in all forms, are grounded into instincts, but they also relate these actions to sports. Their parents played, who were known for their aggressive behavior, so the child feels that they have to live up to that expectation. ( 6. Storr) Athletes do have to be aggressive to a point, so that the team can form a strategy to win. There is also a limit to aggression when it turns into violence. People might say that its not aggression or violence, its just adrenaline pumping. Adrenaline isnt even similar to violence.

Aggression, maybe, but nothing that would be harmful to anyone else. This might be a factor to why contact sports are so popular. For example, football, hockey, rugby, wrestling, and boxing. Contrary to predictions of instinct theory, several studies show that contact sports exist and thrive in the same societies that have high rates of aggression and violence. Unfortunately, another belief is that contact sports teach discipline, self-respect, and self-defense. (8. May ) Contact sports arent a positive way to teach these things. Being physically tough helps, but it also needs to be left on the field when the game is over.

This can also lead to the abuse of family, girlfriends, boyfriends, friends, and any other person who gets in their way, because athletes use these sports as a way to get their aggression and angers out. ( 10. Hauser, Powers, Noam ) Others might argue that its skill, and not in the least way violent. Although we really cant give a straight and to the point answer to the question Is aggression an Instinct? We can say that in man, as in other animals, there exists a physiological mechanism, when stimulated, it rises both subjective feelings of anger and to physical changes, which relate to fighting.

This is easily set off, and like other emotional responses, it is very stereotyped, and instinctive. Just like one person is like a very angry person; they resemble one another at the psychological level. The way in which humans adapt to and control their feelings of rage. ( 5. Toch) The mechanisms in which these body changes, the functions that come about is still completely misunderstood. ( 5. Toch) Experiments from animals show that it appears that there is a small area from the base of the brain in which the feeling of anger starts. This, from which is sent to the nervous impulses that cause the blood pressure to rise.

This area is called the hypothalamus. Its function is to coordinate responses like anger. ( 3 Diamond) The relationship between anger, rage, and violence, and psychopathology that is abnormal or unnatural in human behavior and experience. People demonstrate their anger reactions in different ways. Similar to most human behavior, violence has a meaning that it only seems senseless or meaningless to the extent that we are unable to understand it. Most violence starts the fiery human emotions of anger and rage. Not all violent behavior has its origins in anger and rage; some of it is learned, as mentioned before.

Some violence is driven primarily something that Friedrich Nietzsche referred to as the will to power. In other words, rage. ( 3. Diamond) Rage is an instinctual and defensive reaction to severe stress, or physical threat. This is an automatic reflex that people share with animals. This response to serious threat is referred to by Walter Cannon as the fight or flight response. Its the first defense for the survival of the species. Any other threat to the continued physical existence, a person would have the instinct to try to leave, or if they cant, then physically defend them by attacking the source of the threat.

Hawkins, Fredman ) Relating to the fact that men are more aggressive than women are, studies shown in several cases those testosterone levels in young men especially are. The high levels of endogenous testosterone seem to encourage behavior apparently intended to dominate, to enhance ones status over other people. ( 9. Montague) Sometimes aggressive behavior is aggressive, its apparent intent being to inflict harm on another person, but often dominance is expressed nonaggressively. Measurement of testosterone at a single point in time presumably indicator of a mans basal testosterone level, predicts many of these dominant behaviors.

Numerous animal experiments, this one particular to rodents, show that raising testosterone increases aggressiveness. This is in relation to the dominance and antisocial behavior related to the individuals. An individual can be said to act dominantly if its apparent intent is to achieve or maintain high status, to obtain power influence, or valued prerogatives. Rodents do typically dominate aggressively, but it isnt true of humans. Much of interpersonal behavior is overtly or subtly concerned with managing dominance and subordination without causing physical harm.

It is harder to identify instances of aggression of a dominating motives, things related to religious sacrifices. It is understood that motivations are different from different situations for dominance and aggression. ( 1. Felson, Tedeschi) Clinical science assumes that all men are capable of bloody destructiveness. It maintains that image with most people who do away with their hatreds and, and although There are some instances where this effort fails. Some people are so shy about their aggressiveness that when they are provoked in the least little way, they become so violent that they are unbearable.

Even a slight review of violent conduct suggests that violence isnt blind, and random. Members of fighting gangs are frequently nonviolent when separated from their members. Many extremely dangerous people seem to specialize in certain areas of victims. This is in relation to taking the aggressiveness off the field. There is sometimes a relationship between being violent and being socially improper. Violence usually takes place in certain circles, certain settings, and on certain occasions. If violence is really blind and random, its hard to understand why we should find so much in specific situations.

Does a man assault his wife rather than the athlete who messed up simply because shes available? Violence cant be associated with angry explosions. There is shape and form to violence. Patterns of destructiveness show consistently, and they relay from person to person. As for each of us, violence seems to be tied to a restricted range of life situations. It seems to reflect purpose, and implies the presence of hidden meanings. So, how do we satisfy it? How is it provoked? How do violent people function?

The level of testosterone circulating in the bloodstream may affect dominating or aggressive behavior by activating receptors in organs or the nervous system. Focusing on young males who have passed through puberty. There are associated reports that show a relatively high level of testosterone with dominant, aggressive, or antisocial actors including several studies of men in jail. The scientists found that no significant testosterone difference between those who fought in prison, and those who did not, between the ages of 18 to 35.

However, prisoners with a prior record of violence and aggression related crimes, they had a significantly higher testosterone level than those without a history. In the age group of 18to 45, sorted into the same groups, those with chronic aggressive behavior, those socially dominant without physical aggressiveness, and those who were neither aggressive or dominant, their testosterone levels were not significantly different between the aggressive and dominant groups, but they also had significantly higher testosterone than the group that was either aggressive or dominant.

A similar study was tested on college hockey players. ( 1. Felson , Tedeschi) They studied 14 male college players ages 18 to 23, and found a significant correlation between testosterone and coach ratings of players aggressiveness in respond to threat. Another study was done on four male physicians. Ranging from ages to 23 to 38, they were confined on a boat for a two week holidaycruise. The testosterone level to be correlated with the physicians assertiveness and dominant behavior, as ranked by three women on the boat.

Overall, there is considerable evidence from a variety of settings that in men, circulating testosterone is correlated with dominant or aggressive behavior, and antisocial norm breaking. Correlation doesnt imply any reason, and the question is still being pondered, Is high testosterone a cause of dominant and antisocial behavior? ( 9. Montague) There has also been argument whether or not that women can be as aggressive and dominant as men. Despite considerable speculation that testosterone is associated with aggression or status in women, the literature is few and far between.

Scientists report that testosterone levels in 55 women increased the status of their occupations. Another study was done with women who were patients in a neurological clinic, found significantly higher testosterone levels among relatively aggressive patients compared to less aggressive ones, but they also differed in diagnois, and making the comparison suspect. ( 5. Toch) The issue of sex differences has been addressed by asking how men and women respond to an identical competitive situation.

Testosterone was given by saliva to young men and women before, during, and after competing with a same sex partner in a video game. The hormonal response to the competition was different in each sex. Males showed the usual pre contest rise in testosterone, but females did not. Males did not show the usual result that testosterone levels of winners is higher than that of losers, apparently because the video game produced no mood difference between male winners and losers.

A mood difference was produced between female winners and losers, but the female showed no specific response to the competition. These results show that the outcome of the competition on testosterone specific to men. (7. Hawkins, Fredman) From laboratory results and athletic studies, the testosterone level rises in men awaiting a contest, regardless of the eventual outcome contest. Generalizing to the street, hormone levels should be elevated in young men who are constantly against assaults on their reputations.

Of course, testosterone level is also affected by the outcome of the contest, so persistent losers might be hormonally depressed, but most men, those with mixed outcome or better, should have elevated testosterone level. ( 3. Diamond) Leaving behind the historic roots of the South, there may be a general hypersensitivity to insult in any subculture that is, or once was organized around young men who are constantly constrained by traditional community agents of social control, as after occurs in frontier countries, gangs, among bohemians, and after social breakdown or natural diseases.

When young men place special emphasis on protecting their images and reputations, and they are not restrained from doing so, dominance contests become necessary, the hallmark of male to male interaction. ( 5. Toch) To interpret racial differences in testosterone, a comparison of black and white boys ages 6 to 18 years, mostly preteens, showed no significant race different in testosterone. By adulthood, black males do have significantly higher testosterone levels than white males, possibly reflecting the higher defensive demands on black men during adulthood.

The reciprocal linkage between hormones and behavior suggests that if testosterone levels among young men in the inner city are highlighted by their constant defensive posture against challenge and these high hormone levels in turn encourage further dominance contests. Feedback between challenge and testosterone may create a various circle, sometimes with lethal effects. (7. Hawkins, Fredman) During puberty, the effects of testosterone on behavior appear to work primarily through long term reorganizations of the body and neurohormanal system, and only secondary through short term activation.

By the end of puberty, usually around 16 years, the body is nearly at its adult form so behavior is affected primarily by the level of testosterone circulating in the blood stream, which can activate steroid receptors. (10. Hauser, Powers, Noam) There is a string correlation and experimental evidence that testosterone levels respond in predictable ways both before and after competitions for status. First, testosterone rises shortly before a competitive event, as if anticipating the challenge.

Second, after the conclusion of competition, testosterone levels in winners rises relative to that of losers. Testosterone also rises after status evaluations, and it falls after status demotions, These effects require the presence of appropriate mood changes. Limited evidence suggests that this pattern of testosterone responses is specific to men. ( 4. Stepansky) As these studies have suggested, aggression in sport is there, but the men mainly showcase it.

Aggressive people are attracted to contact violent sport competitions, to where they can fit in while being violent. On the other hand, sports can create aggressive behaviors that could lead to worse things. Women can and will showcase this, but as said before, men show a stronger case of it. Things of this nature have been going on for centuries, every since the beginning of sport, unfortunately, if these behaviors arent controlled, the young children might be the ones to suffer by an outcome that nobody wants to see, doing away with sports in general.

During the summer of 1992, the NBA took center stage as the world watched the greatest team in sports ever assembled joke, pose, and finally play its way to the gold medal at the summer Olympic games. The team was named the “Dream Team” and it featured eleven of the NBA’s best players. Names like Michael Jordan, Earvin “Magic” Johnson, and Larry Bird headlined the games and the play of Scottie Pippen and “Sir” Charles Barkley stole the show. After only eight games, the world of USA basketball would never be the same.

Since 1992 two more teams called themselves the “Dream Team” and two were simply labeled as “Team USA” but one thing is for certain, International basketball has taken a step in the right direction thanks in part to the NBA and its Dream Team era. Over time the faces of those players may have changed, but the goal has always stayed the same and that’s the goal of bringing home the gold medal. After dominating men’s Olympic basketball for years, the men’s USA basketball team lost to the USSR in the 1988 Seoul games which cost them a shot at winning the gold medal, but they did come home with the bronze.

The United States Olympic committee decided that since the rest of the world were sending their best players into the Olympic games that when it came to basketball it was time for them to do the same. The decision was made in 1989 to allow players from the NBA to represent their country in the 1992 Barcelona games. That one decision was the most important decision in the history of international basketball with one goal in mind; to put together the best possible team that they could.

The goal of putting a great basketball team of NBA players together seemed impossible especially when it came to dealing with the egos of today’s athletes, but what seemed impossible became a reality. Established veterans like Magic Johnson and Larry Bird and future Hall of Famers/MVP’s like Michael Jordan and best friend Charles Barkley were added to the team. Big men David Robinson and Patrick Ewing were added to control the paint and guards Clyde “The Glide” Drexler and John Stockton were added to run the show.

The man picked to coach the team was Chuck Daly who had won two of the last three NBA Championships with the Detroit Pistons. Knowing that no other team would ever be as potentially great as this one, sportswriters around the world dubbed the 1992 men’s Olympic team as the “Dream Team”. After only three weeks of practicing together, the Dream Team was ready for the world. “We were in a definite no win situation,” said Chuck Daly; “we had to come back with the gold medal” (The Dream Team).

Despite being lead in overall scoring by Charles Barkley, different players would step up on different nights to take control and led the Dream Team to victory with not just scoring, but great passing and leadership ability as well. Michael Jordan who at the time was the most popular basketball player in the world showed that he is a great defensive player as well as an offensive player by averaging five steals per game during the tournament. Other players like David Robinson and Patrick Ewing provided tough interior defense and the flow of the games offensively were controlled by Magic Johnson and Scottie Pippen.

The Dream Team’s first game was on July 26th against the African nation of Angola and the United States defeated them 116-48 with Charles Barkley leading the way with 24 points. Against Brazil, Barkley set a USA Olympic record by scoring 30 points on 12-14 shooting. The rest of the tournament the Dream Team faced Croatia, Germany, Brazil, Spain, Puerto Rico, Lithuania. During the game against Lithuania, one of the Lithuanian players actually sat on the side line and took pictures of the Dream Team with his camera.

Many celebrities like Jack Nicholson, Spike Lee, and Arnold Schwarzenegger made the trip to Barcelona to witness the gold medal game between the United States and Croatia. The Dream Team defeated Croatia 117-85 and they were led by Michael Jordan who scored 22 points with Charles Barkley and Patrick Ewing scoring 17 and 15 points (The Dream Team). During the eight games, the Dream Team went undefeated and averaged 117. 3 points per game the most by a team in Olympic history while defeating teams by an average of 43. 8 ppg.

You will see a team of professionals in the Olympics again,” said Coach Chuck Daly, “But I don’t think you’ll see another team quite like this. This was a majestic team. ” Chuck Daly also went on to say that he had an exceptional group of players who really understood the goal and wanted to share (The Dream Team). With the rest of the world having four years to prepare themselves, the third group of NBA players to call themselves the Dream Team knew that their road to the gold medal in the 1996 Summer Games were going to be more difficult.

The same excitement that overcame the fans at the Barcelona games overcame the fans in Atlanta because the Dream Team had the home court advantage. Dream Team III was composed of many young up and coming stars in the NBA at the time like Shaquille O’Neal and Anfernee “Penny” Hardaway but the team also included some battle tested veterans. Players from the first Dream Team like Scottie Pippen, David Robinson, Charles Barkley, Karl Malone, and John Stockton were added to the team. The rest of the roster included 1988 Olympian Mitch Richmond, Grant Hill, Gary Payton, Reggie Miller, and Hakeem “The Dream” Olajuwon.

Before the Olympics began, Dream Team III had three weeks of practices that were so competitive that some say that they were actually more competitive than the actual Olympic games. During the three weeks of practice, the Dream Team faced Brazil, China, and Greece in three different exhibition games in various NBA arenas. David Robinson was so impressed by the progress of the team he stated that this team was the most talented team that had ever been put together and Charles Barkley stated that no matter what team the NBA puts out there, it will be the best.

After three weeks of practice, the preliminary round of the tournament began with the Dream Team taking on Argentina. After a very slow start, the Dream Team defeated Argentina 96-68. After a couple more slow starts, the Dream Team faced China and it was the outcome of this game that showed the entire world that this team could be compared to the team that took the court in the 1992 Summer Games. The Dream Team defeated China 133-70 with the help of some great defense and five three point shots by Reggie Miller who finished the game with 17 points.

The Dream Team faced Brazil in front of a crowd of 31,740 and three of the team’s stars decided that his game would be their breakout game. Scottie Pippen wowed the crowd with terrific defense on Brazil’s leading scorer and then Orlando Magic teammates Shaquille O’Neal and Penny Hardaway scored combined with Shaq also grabbing 11 rebounds. While playing against Australia, Charles Barkley showed his MVP form in front of a crowd of 34,069 by scoring 24 points and pulling down 11 rebounds in the Dream Team’s 101-73 victory (96 Olympic Gold)

The gold medal game featured a showdown between two undefeated countries, the United States and Yugoslavia who were led by NBA star Vlade Divac. The game was witnessed by an Olympic men’s basketball record crowd of 34,600. For one few times in Dream Team history, the team was down by seven points midway through the first half caused by terrible shooting, but by the time half time arrived the team had taken 43-38 lead. When it was all said and done, the Dream Team became the first team to defeat Yugoslavia by a final score of 95-69.

Once again the stars came out and this time they were led by David Robinson who was playing his last International basketball game. He ended the game with 28 points and only missing two of eleven shots the entire game. Reggie Miller finished the game with 20 points and Penny Hardaway scored 17. Once again the goal of capturing a gold medal was met, but the next four years would see major changes in the idea of the Dream Team (96 Olympic Gold). By the time the 2000 Summer games arrived, the world finally felt that they had caught on to the “Dream Team” concept.

The NBA tried to convince its new generation of stars to play for their country and win the Gold Medal but many declined the offer. After the Atlanta games, Karl Malone spoke of the hardships of the Olympics. When this team came here we thought we were doing something for our country, but it turned into something we didn’t expect. We’re taking heat for either being too good or for not winning by enough, and then we have to look over our shoulders and have bodyguards with is wherever we go. I think players in the future may look at what we went through, and it might be hard to convince them to play in the Olympics.

I would tell them that representing your country is worth all the hassles, but don’t be surprised if some guys start to turn down the invitation (Slam Dunk). Tim Duncan of the San Antonio Spurs and Jason Kidd were the first players to join the team, but Duncan broke his ankle before the Olympics began so he had to sit out of the games. With only Jason Kidd on the team, the NBA decided to send a group of players to the Olympics who were very talented even though they didn’t have the championships to show for it in an attempt to give them something to fight for.

Many basketball insiders called the 2000 team the “B” team of the NBA. Knowing that these players were not the best that the NBA had to offer, the title of the Dream Team was removed from the team and they were simply called Team USA. Other than Jason Kidd, the team included all-stars Kevin Garnett, Vince Carter, Antonio McDyess, Ray Allen, Shareef Abdur-Rahim, and Vin Baker. Team USA also included veteran players Tim Hardaway, Allan Houston, Gary Payton, Steve Smith, and two time defensive player of the year Alonzo Mourning.

The team was coached by former NBA all-star Rudy Tomjanovich who coached the Houston Rockets to back to back NBA championships in 1994 and 1995. Team USA defeated China and Italy without any trouble but against Lithuania, the USA only won by nine points which was a bit of a disappointment considering what teams in the past had done. The next game against New Zealand, Team USA got back on track by defeating them 102-56 and then they defeated France 106-94. Russia was the next victim of Team USA loosing to them by fifteen points.

During the semi-finals, the USA faced Lithuania once more and they were forced to make a comeback in the game’s final minute and half before they could secure an 85-83 win, but only after Lithuania’s game winning shot fell short at the buzzer (Games). Even though Team USA wasn’t as star-studded as the previous two Olympic teams, they still achieved the goal of winning a gold medal, but the path that they took to get there was much tougher than the path of teams in the past.

With that being said, Team USA helped the United States Men’s basketball program to reach 109 wins with only two losses spread across 14 different Olympic games. Despite the fact that the era and aura of the Dream Team was destroyed, the memories of the games will live on forever. Names like Michael Jordan, Charles Barkley, Shaquille O’Neal and Vince Carter will always be remembered for having great NBA careers, but also for bring home the gold medal for their country and doing it with a class and a grace that will never be seen again.

Unlike professional basketball and American football, interest in baseball has not been sweeping the globe. Declining participation at the amateur level and protracted labor problems at the professional level have thrust “America’s Pastime” into an era of uncertainty. Despite this current adversity, baseball will always occupy an important place in American culture. This column starts a three part look at the history of baseball. Most cultures have some sort of stick and ball game, cricket being the most well-known. While the exact origins of baseball are unknown, most historians agree that it is based on the English game of rounders.

It began to become quote popular in this country in the early 19th century, and many sources report the growing popularity of a game called “townball”, “base”, or “baseball”. Throughout the early part of that century, small towns formed teams, and baseball clubs were formed in larger cities. In 1845, Alexander Cartwright wanted to formalize a list of rules by which all team could play. Much of that original code is still in place today. Although popular legend says that the game was invented by Abner Doubleday, baseball’s true father was Cartwright. The first recorded baseball contest took place a year later, in 1846.

Cartwright’s Knickerbockers lost to the New York Baseball Club in a game at the Elysian Fields, in Hoboken, New Jersey. These amateur games became more frequent and more popular. In 1857, a convention of amateur teams was called to discuss rules and other issues. Twenty five teams from the northeast sent delegates. The following year, they formed the National Association of Base Ball Players, the first organized baseball league. In its first year of operation, the league supported itself by occasionally charging fans for admission. The future looked very bright.

The early 1860s, however were a time of great turmoil in the United States. In those years of the Civil War, the number of baseball clubs dropped dramatically. But interest in baseball was carried to other parts of the country by Union soldiers, and when the war ended there were more people playing baseball than ever before. The leagues annual convention in 1868 drew delegates from over 100 clubs. As the league grew, so did the expenses of playing. Charging admission to games started to become more common, and teams often had to seek out donations or sponsors to make trips.

In order for teams to get the financial support they needed, winning became very important. Although the league was supposed to be comprised of amateurs, many players were secretly paid. Some were given jobs by sponsors, and some were secretly paid a salary just for playing. In 1869, the Cincinnati Red Stockings decided to become a completely professional team. Brothers Harry and George Wright recruited the best players from around the country, and beat all comers. The Cincinnati team won sixty-five games and lost none. The idea of paid players quickly caught on.

Some wanted baseball to remain an amateur endeavor, but there was no way they could compete with the professional teams. The amateur teams began to fade away as the best players became professionals. In 1871, the National Association became the first professional baseball league. Professional baseball was built on the foundation of the amateur leagues that preceded it. Interest in baseball as a spectator sport had been nourished for more than 25 years when the first professional league began operation. The National Association fielded nine teams in 1871, and grew to 13 teams by 1875.

The National Association was short-lived. The presence of gamblers undermined the public confidence in the games, and their presence at the games combined with the sale of liquor quickly drove most of their crowds away. Following the 1875 season, the National Association was replaced with the National League. Previously, players had owned the teams and run the games, but the National League was to be run by businessmen. They established standards and policies for ticket prices, schedules, and player contracts. The businessmen demonstrated that professional baseball could be successful, and a rival league soon emerged.

In 1882, the American Association started to compete with reduced ticket prices and teams in large cities. Rather than fight each other, the two leagues reached an accord, ratifying a National Agreement. It called for teams in both major leagues and all of the minor leagues to honor each others player contracts. In addition, the agreement allowed each team to bind a certain number of players with the Reserve Clause. This clause granted teams the rights to unilaterally renew a players contract, preventing him from entertaining other offers. Needless to say, this infuriated the players.

In 1884, they tried to form their own league, the Union Association. Many players left their teams for the freedom of the Union Association, but the league lasted only one season. The teams lost too much money to attempt a second season. Another attempt was made in 1890, when the Players League was formed. Most of the best players from the American Association and National League joined, but like its predecessor, the Players League went bankrupt after one season. The competition and loss of players forced the American Association to fold, too, with four of its best teams joining the National League.

The turn of the century brought another challenger, the American League, which started play in 1901. They raided most of the National Leagues best players. In their attempt to meet the challenge, the National League owners turned on each other. A court injunction impaneled a three-man commission to run the league, and they found a way for the two-leagues to co-exist peacefully. Through the first decade of the twentieth century, baseball remained a game of strategy. The so-called “dead ball” provided few homeruns. The game relied on contact-hitters, bunting, and base-stealing for its offense.

The adoption of a ball with a cork center in 1911 change the game dramatically. Forty years of batting records began to fall, and the popularity of the game began to explode. In 1914, yet another rival league tried to gain a foothold. The Federal League sought to establish its presence both on the field and in the courtroom. They sued, contending that the American and National Leagues constituted a monopoly. While the case languished in the legal system, the Federal League folded after just two seasons. In 1922, the Supreme Court settled the matter by ruling that baseball was exempt from anti-trust legislation.

The Court unanimously acknowledged and confirmed baseballs monopoly. The Roaring Twenties were a great time for the United States and for baseball. A huge gambling scandal in 1919 brought sweeping reforms, and in the nations largest city, a legend was born. George “Babe” Ruth had been a successful pitcher with the Boston Red Sox, but the New York Yankees bought his contract and made him an outfielder. He was the most tremendous hitter the league had ever seen. Ruth revolutionized the game with his prowess as a homerun hitter.

He ushered in an era of economic prosperity for baseball, and became one of the most popular individuals in American history. Like other American men, a large percentage of ballplayers entered the armed forces during World War two. The forties were a difficult time for baseball, but a new era beckoned. Although it was not a written rule, baseball had always been racially segregated. In 1947, Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier, joining the Brooklyn Dodgers. But integration was a very slow process. Other teams were slow to adopt African-American and other minority players.

It was another ten years before all of the teams had integrated , and it wasnt until the early sixties that professional baseball could truly call itself integrated. In 1960, yet another rival league appeared. Although a handful of teams had moved, most of them were concentrated in the northeast. Large cities in the south and west wanted teams of their own. The Continental League sought to win in court before they had a chance to go bankrupt on the field. Faced with the possibility of losing their monopoly, major league owners reached a compromise.

They would agree to expand, growing from 16 teams to 24 by the end of the decade. The players loved this, because expansion meant more jobs. Baseball prospered economically, as attendance continued to grow and national television and radio contracts brought in huge amounts of money. Soon, the players began to see that the owners were not sharing the wealth. Salaries had remained stagnant for many years, and the players were still bound by the reserve clause. Although they had a union, its only real function was to administer the meager pension former players received.

Seeing the success of organized labor in the auto industry and the steel industry, the players decided to put some teeth into their union. After nearly a hundred years, the players wanted to regain some control of the game. Professional baseball players had organized several times in baseball history, but they were never able to make the advances that unions in other industries had won for their members. The Major League Baseball Players Association had been around for more than thirty years, but its sole purpose had been to collect and administer a meager pension.

Concerned about getting a piece of growing television revenues, the players sought to strengthen their union in 1965. They hired Marvin Miller, a veteran labor organizer who had fought for the United Steelworkers union for years. He knew there was more at stake than adding broadcasting money to the pension fund. When Miller came on board and saw what the conditions were, he knew much more was at stake. For one thing, the minimum salary was $6,000, just a thousand dollars more than it had been in 1947. As he began to collect data, the players were surprised at how poorly they were being paid.

This education paved the way for the first collective bargaining agreement in 1968. It provided some modest improvements, but most importantly it gave the players some leverage. For nearly a hundred years, team owners had a “take it or leave it” relationship with players. The union could (and did) file complaints with the National Labor Relations Board when they were treated unfairly. Players also won the right to have their grievances heard before an independent arbitrator. The owners did not like this. They did not like the union interfering in their business, and they did not like the players standing up to them.

Curt Flood, one of the leagues premier centerfielders refused to report to training camp in 1969, demanding that the St. Louis Cardinals offer more than a $5000 raise. They relented, but after an unexceptional season, they traded him to Philadelphia. Flood did not want to go. He had strong ties to the community, and filed a suit against Commissioner Bowie Kuhn. Flood argued that the Reserve Clause was illegal, and that he should be allowed to negotiate freely with other teams. The Supreme Court ultimately ruled against him, but it made a lot of players think.

By 1975, two pitchers decided to challenge the reserve clause again. It said that the teams had the right to renew a players contract for one year. They interpreted that to be recurring, that they could renew it every year. Dave McNally and Andy Messersmith refused to sign their contracts. If the reserve clause bound them for the 1975 season, there was no contract that could be renewed for 1976. An arbitrator upheld their case, and free agency was born. Players were still bound to a team for the first few years of their career, but after that they could sign with any team.

The owners couldnt contain their excitement at this, and spent the next five years outbidding and outspending each other. The players were happy, because everyones salary was going up. But many owners were getting upset. When a player left, they got nothing in return. They argued that a team who lost a player should get something in return for compensation. Otherwise, the money they had invested in that players development would be lost. The players argued that this would severely limit their freedom. The two sides couldnt agree, so in the middle of the 1981 season the players walked out.

There had been a brief players strike at the start of the 1972 season, which delayed the start of the season by 13 days. This was much more serious, and little negotiation took place. After fifty days, the owners relented and agreed to a modified compensation plan. In return, players not yet eligible for free-agency could have their salaries decided by an arbitrator. The economic issues was growing more complicated, and the adversarial relationship between owners and players grew more intense. In 1985, the players struck again.

The owners had hoped that salary arbitration would help keep salaries down, but it propelled them through the roof. The owners wanted to change it, the players said no way. After two days, the owners relented and the players came back. Then the free-agent market suddenly and mysteriously dried up. Following the 1986 season, players in search of contracts found no bidders, and many re-signed with their teams for lower salaries. This continued for the next few years, until an arbitrator ruled that the owners had colluded. The collective bargaining prohibited that action, and the players were awarded damages.

This all set the stage for the worst battle of all. In 1992, the owners forced Commissioner to resign. The labor contract was about to expire, and they didnt want him to interfere in negotiations. Turns out they didnt want any negotiations either. Their had been a strike or a lockout every time the collective bargaining agreement expired, and the players didnt want to go through that again. They started the 1994 season without a contract. The owners were insisting that a salary cap was necessary for teams to survive. They claimed free agency and salary arbitration were wrecking them.

No progress was being made, so the players went on strike in August. The World Series was canceled for the first time in 92 years. Fans across the country were disgusted and heartbroken. President Clinton appointed a mediator, but nothing happened. Finally, the owners decided to unilaterally implement their own plan. They assembled teams of replacement players and set out to start the 1995 season without the “real” players. The players asked for and got a restraining order, prohibiting the teams from implementing their plan and forcing them to work under the terms of the old agreement until a new one was reached.

It took almost two more years for a labor deal to be reached, and it finally happened in November of 1996. While its too soon to tell if the deal will address the financial problems that face Major League Baseball, it does offer the hope that fans can start thinking about the game on the field once again. Baseball has fallen behind other American sports in popularity, and it will take a lot of work to regain the prominence it once held in American culture. There is a long, proud history to build on, and baseball will enter its third century with reasons for optimism.

An athletic trainer seeking employment in today’s job market is likely to encounter many problems and obstacles along the way. The need for higher education greatly affects the prospect for the athletic trainer with only the baccaulereate degree. Those with this degree are better suited to seek employment in the rehabilitative therapy clinic setting. Many of these clinics have contracts with the local high schools or university thus allowing for more employees and allowing these entry level positions.

Clinics also tebd to employ the student trainers who also have a tendency to move on after their education. With third party payees coming more into this field there should be an increase in the job availability for the athletic trainer in the clinical setting. There are also many openings for trainers in the high school level. The down side to this area of work is that this position is not generally based on the care and concern for the health and well being of the student athlete but is contingent on the budget aspect.

The most dismal field for an athletic trainer seeking employment is in the college level. Athletic trainers most certainly need advanced degrees as well as certification of the National Athletic Trainers Association. Most Athletic trainers in this level have accepted employment while in college or attending that particular university. The college level for the athletic trainer position has not increased over the past few years- due impart to the hiring of the student trainers leaving no openings for the athletic trainer who is seeking full time employment.

Obviously there is a definite need for advanced degrees in todays society, if one is seeking employment as an athletic trainer due to the fact that there is a very limited job field and openings are few and far between. In order to be fully prepared for the position of athletic trainer in todays sports related society, the potential trainer needs to obtain the minimum of a baccalaureate degree with a designated course of study. They need to have studied thoroughly anatomy and physiology, physiology of exercise, rehabilitation, kineseiology, psychology, injury evaluation and also emergency care procedures and techniques.

Before meeting the requirements to become eligible to test for the National Athletic Trainers Association (NATA) a potential trainer needs a minumum of 800 clinical hours of xperience or 1500 hours if not enrolled in an accredited athletic training education program. The NATA also requires continuing education units for a certified trainer to remain certified through them. The steps to obtaining a career in the field of athletic training are fairly simple. A desire to work in the sports related field is obviously the driving force for most.

A BA is the minimum degree along with clinical hours of experience as noted earlier. Also the National Athletic Trainers Association Board of Certification requires continuing education classed to maintain and update your knowledge of new rocedures. A Masters Degree is often sought by the athletic trainer to further advance their career. A select few often go on and pursue a doctoral degree and progress on to become instructors. Depending on the location of the high school/ clinic/ university the Athletic trainer may encounter many different obstacles to overcome in the day to day running of the training office.

A few of these problems are, but not limited to, the following: Budgeting problems : many athletic trainers have learned how to juggle funds and become extremely frugal o maintain within the budget limitations. Travel: there is often the need for the trainer to accompany the team or athletes on the road to games and sports events which poses a hardship both on the trainers life and the life of their families. There will always be the legal aspects of the job field to content with for the athletic trainers. There is a definate need for the explicit following of all rules and procedures in order to try to prevent any egal ramifications.

While employeed at any particular school or clinic a trainer hould be covered at all times by the schools liability policy. All athletes are required to sign a waiver when they decide to participate in the sport of their choice and this too is a protective measure for both the trainer and the school or the clinic. Although it may seem like the problems along with the dismal job openings are a great deal to contend with when one is contemplating choosing the field of Athletic Training there are a great many pluses to this field too. Many a trainer has a feeling of camaradarie with his athletes feeling of being one of the team… ing one with the boys.

They also feel a sense of pride and accomplishment when their team or athlete does well also. An athletic trainer tends to become an integral part of an athletes life as they see each other on a daily basis in the training room or at the clinic. Athletes often come to the trainer for advice on how to maintain the health of their bodies as well as with the rehabilitation of their injuries. The trainer is there to offer advice and also for the support when an athlete is feeling down and about recovery. This is a very important part of the job.