The roots of the Russian Revolution of 1917 were deep. Russia had suffered under an extremely oppressive form of government for centuries under the rule of the czars. During the 19th century the nation was filled with movements for political liberalization. In the long run there were several revolutions, not one. The first rebellion, known as the Decembrist uprising, took place in December 1825. Members of the upper classes, including many former soldiers, staged a revolt after the death of Alexander I. The revolt failed, but it provided an inspiration to succeeding generations of dissidents.
The next revolution took place in 1905, after the Russo-Japanese War, which Russia lost. It appeared briefly that public discontent would force Czar Nicholas II to establish a constitutional monarchy. Such a change would not have satisfied either the czar or his opponents, however. Radical revolutionaries continued to fight for a democratic republic, and the czar wanted to retain his control of the peasants. The next two revolutions were successful. They occurred during World War I, when Russian military forces were hard pressed by the Germans.
The March Revolution of 1917 led to the abdication of Nicholas and the installation of a provisional government. The leader of this government was Alexander Kerensky, who was eventually forced from power. (He later immigrated to the United States. ) The last revolution took place in November of the same year. (Because the date was in October on the old Russian calendar, it is usually called the October, or Octobrist, Revolution. ) It brought to power the Bolshevik wing of the Communist party, led by Lenin.
The Bolsheviks established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics under the dictatorship of the Communist party. In the end Lenin and his followers established a regime that was more rigidly tyrannical than that of any czar. Czar Nicholas had taken command of armies in the field in the fall of 1915. This left a power vacuum in St. Petersburg, the capital. The collapse of the government suddenly came in March (February, old calendar) 1917. Food riots, strikes, and war protests turned into mass demonstrations. The army refused to fire on the demonstrators.
A Soviet (or council) of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies was elected, and it formed the provisional government on March 14. The next day Nicholas abdicated. The provisional government was a coalition of factions representing divergent points of view. Some wanted withdrawal from the war and immediate economic reforms, with guarantees of political liberty. Others, including Kerensky, wanted to continue the war and postpone all reforms until the conflict was finished. No compromise seemed workable. Meanwhile, Lenin–the revolutionary genius–arrived by train from Switzerland.
He had been put on a sealed train by the Germans, who hoped that he would influence Russia to leave the war. This story has been well told by Edmund Wilson in his book ‘To the Finland Station’. Lenin’s slogan was “All power to the soviets! ” and he used it to undermine the provisional government. He demanded peace at once, immediate land reform, workers’ control of factories, and self-determination for the non-Russian peoples. Once in power he turned his back on all programs of reform, but he kept his promise to take Russia out of World War I.
It was Kerensky’s persistence in fighting the war that undid the provisional government, though other factors contributed. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, undermined the war effort with propaganda among the soldiers. The government attempted to take action against Lenin, but he went into hiding in Finland. Kerensky tried to reinforce his authority by calling a state conference in Moscow. The Bolsheviks were not represented, but the conference was so divided that it could achieve nothing. A conservative revolt led by Gen. Lavr G. Kornilov was put down. This failed revolt was a turning point in the revolution.
It became clear that there were not two, but three, opposing forces in the government: the conservatives, the social democrats, and Lenin’s followers. To Kornilov, the enemy was socialism, personified by Kerensky. To Kerensky, the conservatives represented counterrevolution. Both factions despised and underrated Lenin. To Lenin, Kerensky was as much of an enemy as Nicholas II. The defeat of Kornilov and the exhaustion of the provisional government gave Lenin the chance he had been waiting for. The leading characters of the next phase of revolution were Lenin and Leon Trotsky.
Trotsky would be murdered years later on Joseph Stalin’s orders (see Trotsky). Kerensky seemed unable to take action against the military preparations of the Bolsheviks, who were distributing arms, subverting the army, and appointing supporters as commissars of military units. On the night of November 6-7 (October 24-25, old calendar) the Bolsheviks acted. By the next evening the capital was in their hands, though fighting in Moscow went on for several days. Soon the Bolsheviks had installed their own general as commander in chief of the armed forces.
When the second All-Russian Congress of Soviets met in the capital, most members of other socialist parties walked out, leaving the impression that Lenin’s party best represented the interests of workers, farmers, and soldiers. The congress called upon all parties in the war to negotiate immediate peace. It also abolished all private ownership of land and took all property of the imperial family and the church. The eight-hour workday was made compulsory, and factory workers were given the right to supervise their enterprises. Kerensky had earlier planned an election for the end of the month.
Lenin let it go ahead. The results gave the Bolsheviks a distinct minority in the Constituent Assembly. Lenin then appealed over the head of the assembly to the people, claiming the workers’ councils (the soviets) represented “a higher form of democratic principle. ” By January 1918 the assembly was completely demoralized, and it ceased to function. Meanwhile, Lenin had to deal with the war. Calls for a negotiated peace failed. Lenin then bargained directly with the Germans. Faced with a crippling loss of territory or the collapse of his government, he chose the former.
Trotsky headed the Soviet delegation that signed a peace treaty at Brest-Litovsk, in what is now Belarus, on March 3, 1918. Under its terms Russia lost Ukraine, its Polish and Baltic provinces, and Finland. The treaty was effectively annulled by Germany’s defeat in November 1918, and the Soviet Union eventually regained all of the territory except Finland and Poland. At the time that the Congress of Soviets met to approve the treaty, the Bolsheviks changed their name to the Russian Communist party. The treaty had negative effects for Lenin. Opponents from different Russian factions were united by their opposition to it.
Patriotic indignation at the betrayal of Russia to Germany quickly surfaced, even in the army. This division between the Communists and their opponents led to a civil war that lasted until late 1920. Trotsky was appointed commissar for war. Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic Lenin’s government, which had relocated to the Kremlin in Moscow, was determined to get rid of all opposition. All non-Bolshevik socialist factions were driven out of the workers’ councils, and they were forbidden to engage in political activity. In retaliation Lenin was shot and seriously wounded, and another leading Communist was assassinated.
The government responded by proclaiming a campaign of “Red terror,” which included shooting hostages and giving the secret police (the Cheka) the power to arrest, try, and execute suspects. Because the Communists feared that Nicholas might be liberated, he and his family were murdered at Ekaterinburg on the night of July 16-17, 1918. Although surrounded on all sides by enemies, the Communists had the advantage of controlling the heartland of Russia. Trotsky’s Red Army was able to plan operations and move men more easily than its enemies, whose bases were on the fringes and who were cut off from each other.
Although all the enemies wanted to destroy the Moscow government, they were not united in other objectives. For example, if the Ukrainians, who simply wanted independence, had won it, they probably would not have continued to fight on behalf of those opposed to the government. Trotsky managed to take an army that had once been demoralized by Bolshevik propaganda and turn it into an effective fighting force. He used former czarist officers whose training and experience were too valuable to be ignored. The rigid discipline of the Communist party helped to raise morale.
By 1919 the Red Army had become a much better fighting force than its opponents, who were collectively referred to as the Whites. A large part of the peasantry disliked the Communists, but they saw no point in supporting the Whites, who they feared would restore the monarchy. The industrial workers entertained no hope from the Whites, who had shown no understanding of city workers. After the civil war ended, the only threat to the government came from the Kronshtadt Rebellion of 1921. Strikes in St. Petersburg led to demonstrations demanding the release of socialists from prison.
In March a mutiny broke out at the nearby naval base of Kronshtadt. The sailors demanded political freedom and the end of the dictatorship of the Communist party. Lenin, whose chief goal had always been political power, refused any concessions. Trotsky led a force that crushed the mutineers. Lenin went far to allay economic discontent by advocating such policies as affirming the rights of the peasants to own land, by reducing taxes, and by permitting a certain amount of private enterprise in his New Economic Policy.
But in politics he was rigid. No opinions other than those sanctioned by the Communist party were allowed. The party itself was controlled by its Central Committee and increasingly by smaller units. Effective control passed finally to the Secretariat of the party. When Lenin died in 1924 power passed to the first secretary of the party, Joseph Stalin. Under him still one more revolution took place: the centralization of all political and economic power in his hands and the transformation of the Soviet Union into a completely totalitarian state.